Saturday, August 31, 2019

Cold Case Investigation

Abstract Cold case investigation is a growing concern due to increased numbers of unsolved cases and pop culture appeal. This paper will walk you through what a cold case investigation is, how one begins, and factors such as the use of volunteers can effect the outcome of a cold case investigation. Each year the number of unsolved cases in the U. S. goes up, but with limiting funding and lack of manning something has to be done to keep the numbers down. A dedicated cold case unit is the best answer to this problem. Cold Case InvestigationApproximately one-third of all homicides in the United States are not cleared within the first year of being committed. These cases are dubbed cold cases after active investigation has been terminated for any of several reasons. If investigators lose the trail or cannot come up with enough evidence, witnesses, or a suspect the case may be closed. More important or high publicity cases may become a priority and with lack of a trail a case is closed. T hese cases can be placed on a back burner until time and manning is available to conduct a more thorough investigation and continue where previous investigation left off.The low clearance rate has also been attributed to the number of experienced detectives, changes in resources, deterioration of quality of investigation, and escalation of other related crimes. The means of conducting a cold case investigation vary greatly from that of an ongoing investigation and may even be conducted by people not employed by the original agency handling the case. Resurrecting a Cold Case Investigation After a case has been dubbed a cold case, it may take several months to even years before it is re-opened for investigation.Some times the original investigator may feel a desire to re-open the case or new evidence or witnesses may come to light offering up a direction for investigators to follow. Other times it requires others not involved in the initial investigation to take initiative to gather c losure for victims or other reasons. If the primary investigator in the initial case is not involved in the cold case investigation, the current investigators need to be brought up to speed on the background and prior evidence or facts of the case.Investigators may then contact any prior witnesses and re-entertain questions previously asked or expand on the subject. Some witnesses may provide further information. If there were no witnesses or suspects, current technology that was not available during the initial investigation could provide evidence not previously available such as DNA. Personnel previously interviewed may also be feeling guilt by the time a cold case is re-opened and need an opportunity to vent or even confess their guilt.If little or no further information is found for investigators to go off of the case may become frustrating and be given up on again. Re-opening a cold case also creates some turmoil such as opening old wounds with the victims of these crimes due t o the suspect not being caught initially, and because the victims are forced to relive the past. Cold Case Investigation Units Cold case investigation investigations units have been formed to combat the growing trend of unsolved cases. They usually consist of one or more dedicated homicide investigators with the sole purpose of solving the cases.The structure and management of these units are not clearly defined at this time and there is little evidence to prove that they are effective at reducing the numbers of unsolved cases. Cold case units have gained popular appeal in the last couple of years through various television shows related to that of solving cold cases. There are two perspectives as to why certain cases remain unsolved. The first is based on conflict theory and behavior of law theory. This theory shows that the police’s discretion leads to differences in investigative effort and shows bias.The biggest thing to note on this theory is that a case will have more t ime and effort put into it if the victim is from a more favorable social position. The second theory is the opposite. It states that everyone receives maximum effort regardless of victim characteristics and cases remain unsolved due to a lack of situational characteristics such as evidence, witnesses, and use of a weapon that can be found and fingerprinted. (Napolean, 2009, pg n/a) The cold case unit concept was created by the Miami police department in the 80’s to handle approximately 1,400 unsolved cases.This unit had much success and cold case investigation units became popular nationwide. To date there are still some concerns on how a cold case unit should operate, but prioritizing cases is the biggest concern. As a standard the highest priority cases are those, which the victim or a second victim has been identified, the death was ruled a homicide, suspects were previously named by forensic means, an arrest warrant was previously issued, significant physical evidence can be further processed, or new leads have arisen where critical witnesses are willing to cooperate.Cold cases are generally broken into three categories, high, moderate or low. By any means, a staffed and supported cold case investigation unit is more advantageous than a temporary unit. Volunteers are Essential Cold case investigation is an extremely labor intensive process. There has been a growing desire for cold cases to be solved due to its pop culture appeal. Many police departments are feeling the pressure to get their unsolved case numbers down, but due to the economy and budgets on a downward trend staffing and resources are at a premium.Agencies are now turning to a more non-traditional alternative to fill staff voids left by budget cuts. Volunteers can play an essential role in the assistance to detectives who solve cold cases. Retired detectives provide an allure to some agencies. These retirees do not require additional training because they were previously employed in th e same line of business. They are also most likely to enjoy doing the work because they retired doing it. A great attractor for retirees is that they benefit from getting a chance to do what they love without being forced into the long hours that comes along with it.Other volunteers can come from just about anywhere as long as they have a willingness and drive to solve the cases. Ex-law enforcement and civilians are vital. Having a mixed background of volunteers provides a variety of experience to draw from and a fresh set of eyes on the cases. Investigators that previously worked on the cases may feel refreshed having another opinion on the work they did and find something that was previously missed. Often times investigators are drawn into the way they were instructed to solve a case and miss alternative approaches to problem solving.Volunteers can provide this alternate because they may not have any training in solving cases. Even if volunteers do not work specifically on solving the case, there are other just as important opportunities. Law enforcement comes with a lot of paperwork and filing. Volunteers are perfect for this because by them doing the paperwork aspect of the investigation it frees up the time of the actual detectives to do the foot pounding. References Leonard, G. J. , Gerard, F. D. , & Camille, D. B. (2005) Resurrecting cold case serial homicide investigations.FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 74(8), 1-7. Retrieved from https://search. proquest. com/docview/204129494? accountid=8289 Napolean, C. R. (2009) Cold case investigation units. TELEMASP Bulletin, 16(1), 1-10. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/198013843? accountid=8289 Regensburger, D. (2011). Law enforcement volunteers: An essential tool in the investigation of cold case homicides. Sheriff, 63(3), 22-24. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/docview/869520529? accountid=8289

Friday, August 30, 2019

How Time Flies

Non-governmental organization From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search â€Å"NGO† redirects here. For other uses, see NGO (disambiguation). | This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (January 2012) | A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any form of government.The term originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally used to refer to organizations that are not a part of the government and are not conventional for-profit business. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue wider social aims that have political aspects, but are not openly political organizations such as political parties. The number of NGOs operating in the United States is estimated at 40,000. 1] International numbers are even higher: Russia has 277,000 NGOs;[2] India is estimated to have around 3. 3 million NGOs in year 2009, which is just over one NGO per 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. [3][4] Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Types * 2. 1 Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs * 2. 2 Track II Diplomacy * 3 Activities * 3. 1 Operational * 3. 2 Campaigning * 3. 3 Both * 3. 4 Public relations * 3. 5 Project management * 4 Corporate structure * 4. 1 Staffing * 4. Funding * 4. 3 Overhead costs * 4. 4 Monitoring and control * 5 History * 6 Legal status * 7 Critiques * 7. 1 Challenges to legitimacy * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 Further reading * 11 External links| Definition NGOs are difficult to define and classify, and the term ‘NGO' is not used consistently. As a result, there are many different classifications in use. The most common use a framework that includes orientation and level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, or evelopment work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, international or national. â€Å"Confronting the Classification Problem: Toward a Taxonomy of NGOs† One of the earliest mentions of the acronym â€Å"NGO† was in 1945, when the UN was created. The UN, which is an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies – or non-governmental organisations – to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely.Today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government contr ol can be termed an â€Å"NGO†, provided it is not-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party. Professor Peter Willetts, from the University of London, argues the definition of NGOs can be interpreted differently by various organizations and depending on a situation’s context. He defines an NGO as â€Å"†an independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continuous basis for some common purpose other than achieving government office, making money or illegal activities. [5] In this view, two main types of NGOs are recognized according to the activities they pursue: operational NGOs that deliver services and campaigning NGOs. Although Willetts proposes the operational and campaigning NGOs as a tool to differentiate the main activities of these organizations, he also explains that a single NGO may often be engaged in both activities. Many NGOs also see them as mutually reinforcing. Professor Akira Iriye defines NGO as â€Å" a voluntary nonstate, nonprofit, nonreligious, and nonmilitary association. â€Å"[6] Types Some find it helpful to classify NGOs by orientation and/ Professional association * Empowering orientation; NGO type by level of co-operation * Community-based organization * City-wide organization * National NGO * International NGO Apart from â€Å"NGO†, there are many alternative or overlapping terms in use, including: third sector organization (TSO), non-profit organization (NPO), voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization (CSO), grassroots organization (GO), social movement organization (SMO), private voluntary organization (PVO), self-help organization (SHO) and non-state actors (NSAs).Non-governmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. As a result, a long (and sometimes confusing or comical) list of additional acronyms has developed, including: * BINGO, short for ‘business-friendly international NGO' or ‘big international NGO' * TANGO, ‘tech nical assistance NGO' * TSO, ‘third sector organization' * GONGO, ‘government-operated NGOs' (set up by governments to look like NGOs in order to qualify for outside aid or promote the interests of government) * DONGO: Donor Organized NGO INGO stands for international NGO; Oxfam, INSPAD,[7] Institute of Peace and Development â€Å"A European Think Tank For Peace Initiatives†; * QUANGOs are quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (The ISO is actually not purely an NGO, since its membership is by nation, and each nation is represented by what the ISO Council determines to be the ‘most broadly representative' standardization body of a nation.That body might itself be a nongovernmental organization; for example, the United States is represented in ISO by the American National Standards Institute, which is independent of the federal government. However, other countries can be represented b y national governmental agencies; this is the trend in Europe. ) * National NGO: A non-governmental organization that exists only in one country. This term is rare due to the globalization of non-governmental organizations, which causes an NGO to exist in more than one country. [5] * CSO, short for civil society organization ENGO: short for environmental NGO, such as Greenpeace and WWF * NNGO, short for ‘Northern nongovernmental organization' * SNGO, short for ‘Southern nongovernmental organization' * SCO, also known as ‘social change organizations' * TNGO, transnational NGO; The term emerged during the 1970s due to the increase of environmental and economic issues in the global community. TNGO includes non-governmental organizations that are not confined to only one country, but exist in two or more countries. * GSO: Grassroots Support Organization * MANGO: short for market advocacy NGO NGDO: non-governmental development organization USAID refers to NGOs as privat e voluntary organizations. However, many scholars have argued that this definition is highly problematic as many NGOs are in fact state and corporate funded and managed projects with professional staff. [citation needed] NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the political or social goals of their members or funders. Examples include improving the state of the natural environment, encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda.However, there are a huge number of such organizations and their goals cover a broad range of political and philosophical positions. This can also easily be applied to private schools and athletic organizations. Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs NGOs are organizations that work in many different fields, but the term is generally associated with those seeking social transformation and improvements in quality of life. Development NGOs is the most highly visi ble sector, and includes both international and local organizations, as well as those working in humanitarian emergency sector.Many are associated with international aid and voluntary donation, but there are also NGOs that choose not to take funds from donors and try to generate funding in other ways, such as selling handicrafts or charging for services. Environmental NGOs are another sub-sector, and sometimes overlap with development NGOs. An example is Greenpeace. (see: List of Environmental NGOs). Just like other NGOs networks, transnational environmental networks might acquire a variety of benefits in sharing information with other organizations, campaigning towards an issue, and exchanging contact information.Since Transnational environmental NGOs advocate for different issues like public goods, such as pollution in the air, deforestation of areas and water issues, it is more difficult for them to give their campaigns a human face than NGOs campaigning directly for human rights issues. Some of the earliest forms of transnational environmental NGOs started to appear after the Second World War with the creation of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).After the UN was formed in 1945, more environmental NGO started to emerge in order to address more specific environmental issues. In 1946, the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created with the purpose of advocating and representing scientific issues and collaboration among environmental NGOs. In 1969, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) was funded to increase and improve collaboration among environmentalists. This collaboration was later reinforced and stimulated with the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program in 1971.In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, tried to address the issues on Sweden’s plead for international intervention on trans-boundary pollution from other European industrialized nations. Transnational environmental NGOs have taken on diverse issues around the globe, but one of the best-known cases involving the work of environmental NGO’s can be traced back to Brazil during the 1980s. The United States got involved with deforestation concerns due to the allegations of environmentalists dictating deforestation to be a global concern, and after 1977 the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act added an Environmental and Natural Resources section. Human rights NGOs may also overlap with those in development, but are another distinct category. Amnesty International is perhaps one of the best-known. During the early 1980s the Brazilian government created the Polonoreste developing program, which the World Bank agreed to finance. The Polonoreste program aimed to urbanized areas of the Amazon, which were already occupied by local indigenous groups.Rapid deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon called the attention and intervention of UNE SCO, who utilized its Program on Man and the Biosphere to advocate against the Polonoreste program, on the grounds of violating the rights of the indigenous groups living in the Amazon. In the case of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, the environment NGOs were able to put pressure on the World Bank to cancel the loans for the Polonoreste program. Due to the leverage that the U. S. has over the bank, in 1985 the World Bank suspended the financial aid to the Polonoreste Program.The work of environmental NGOs in the Brazilian case was successful because there was a point of leverage that made the targeted actor vulnerable to international pressure. [8] Even though NGOs might have common goals relating to development or environment issues, interests and perspectives are diverse. A distinction can be made between the interests and goals among those NGOs located in industrialized countries—often referred to as the states of the North—and NGOs from nations located in dev eloping countries—referred to as states of the South.There is sometimes tension between them. Southern states blame the developed nations for over-consumption and pollution resulting from industrialization, and for sustaining inequalities in the international economic system There is also a distinction among groups that take on particular and specific socio-economic issues. The Women’s Environment and Development Organization was created in 1990 with the purpose to advocate for gender inclusion in work related to the Earth Summit.Other groups might focus on issues that include racial minorities and individuals from lower income backgrounds. [9] Track II Diplomacy Main article: Track II diplomacy Track II dialogue, or Track II diplomacy, is a transnational coordination that involves non-official members of the government including epistemic communities as well as former policy-makers or analysts. Track II diplomacy aims to get policymakers and policy analysts to come to a common solution through discussions by unofficial figures of the government.Unlike the Track I diplomacy where government officials, diplomats and elected leaders gather to talk about certain issues, Track II diplomacy consists of experts, scientists, professors and other figures that are not involved in government affairs. The members of Track II diplomacy usually have more freedom to exchange ideas and come up with compromise on their own. Activities There are also numerous classifications of NGOs. The typology the World Bank uses divides them into Operational and Advocacy:[10] NGOs vary in their methods.Some act primarily as lobbyists, while others primarily conduct programs and activities. For instance, an NGO such as Oxfam, concerned with poverty alleviation, might provide needy people with the equipment and skills to find food and clean drinking water, whereas an NGO like the FFDA helps through investigation and documentation of human rights violations and provides legal as sistance to victims of human rights abuses. Others, such as Afghanistan Information Management Services, provide specialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on the ground by other organizations.NGOs were intended to fill a gap in government services, but in countries like India, NGOs are gaining a powerful stronghold in decision making. In the interest of sustainability, most donors require that NGOs demonstrate a relationship with governments. State Governments themselves are vulnerable because they lack strategic planning and vision. They are therefore sometimes tightly bound by a nexus of NGOs, political bodies, commercial organizations and major donors/funders, making decisions that have short term outputs but no long term affect.NGOs in India are under regulated, political, and recipients of large government and international donor funds. NGOs often take up responsibilities outside their skill ambit. Governments have no access to th e number of projects or amount of funding received by these NGOs. There is a pressing need to regulate this group while not curtailing their unique role as a supplement to government services. Operational Operational NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve small scale change directly through projects. â€Å"[5] They mobilize financial resources, materials and volunteers to create localized programs in the field.They hold large scale fundraising events, apply to governments and organizations for grants and contracts in order to raise money for projects. They often operate in a hierarchical structure; with a main headquarters staffed by professionals who plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, report, and communicate with operational fieldworkers who work directly on projects[5] Operational NGOs deal with a wide range of issues, but are most often associated with the delivery of services and welfare, emergency relief and environmental issues.Operational NGOs can be further categorized, one frequently used categorization is the division into relief-oriented versus development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are religious or secular; and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be community-based, national or international. The defining activity of operational NGOs is implementing projects. [5] Campaigning Campaigning NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve large scale change promoted indirectly through influence of the political system. [5] Campaigning NGOs need an efficient and effective group of professional members who are able to keep supporters informed, and motivated. They must plan and host demonstrations and events that will keep their cause in the media. They must maintain a large informed network of supporters who can be mobilized for events to garner media attention and influence policy changes. The defining activity of campaigning NGOs is holding demonstrations. [5] Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues relating to human rights, women's rights, children's rights. The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause.As opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist event. Both It is not uncommon for NGOs to make use of both activities. Many times, operational NGOs will use campaigning techniques if they continually face the same issues in the field that could be remedied through policy changes. At the same time, Campaigning NGOs, like human rights organizations often have programs that assist the individual victims they are trying to help through their advocacy work. [5] Public relationsNon-governmental organizations need healthy relationships with the public to meet their goals. Foundations and charities use sophisticated public relations campaigns to raise funds and employ s tandard lobbying techniques with governments. Interest groups may be of political importance because of their ability to influence social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by The World Association of Non Governmental NGOs. Project management There is an increasing awareness that management techniques are crucial to project success in non-governmental organizations. 11] Generally, non-governmental organizations that are private have either a community or environmental focus. They address varieties of issues such as religion, emergency aid, or humanitarian affairs. They mobilize public support and voluntary contributions for aid; they often have strong links with community groups in developing countries, and they often work in areas where government-to-government aid is not possible. NGOs are accepted as a part of the international relations landscape, and while they influence national and multilateral policy-making, increasingly they are more directly i nvolved in local action. Corporate structureStaffing Some NGOs are highly professionalized and rely mainly on paid staff. Others are based around voluntary labour and are less formalized. Not all people working for non-governmental organizations are volunteers. Many NGOs are associated with the use of international staff working in ‘developing' countries, but there are many NGOs in both North and South who rely on local employees or volunteers. There is some dispute as to whether expatriates should be sent to developing countries. Frequently this type of personnel is employed to satisfy a donor who wants to see the supported project managed by someone from an industrialized country.However, the expertise these employees or volunteers may be counterbalanced by a number of factors: the cost of foreigners is typically higher, they have no grassroot connections in the country they are sent to, and local expertise is often undervalued. [10] The NGO sector is an important employer i n terms of numbers. [citation needed] For example, by the end of 1995, CONCERN worldwide, an international Northern NGO working against poverty, employed 174 expatriates and just over 5,000 national staff working in ten developing countries in Africa and Asia, and in Haiti. FundingWhether the NGOs are small or large, various NGOs need budgets to operate. The amount of budget that they need would differ from NGOs to NGOs. Unlike small NGOs, large NGOs may have annual budgets in the hundreds of millions or billions of dollars. For instance, the budget of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) was over US$540 million in 1999. [12] Funding such large budgets demands significant fundraising efforts on the part of most NGOs. Major sources of NGO funding are membership dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or national governments, and private donations.Several EU-grants provide funds accessible to NGOs. Even though the term â€Å"non-gove rnmental organization† implies independence from governments, many NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funding. [13] A quarter of the US$162 million income in 1998 of the famine-relief organization Oxfam was donated by the British government and the EU. The Christian relief and development organization World Vision United States collected US$55 million worth of goods in 1998 from the American government.Nobel Prize winner Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) (known in the USA as Doctors Without Borders) gets 46% of its income from government sources. [14] Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according to David Rieff, writing in The New Republic, â€Å"the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter. [15] Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace do not accept funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations. [16][17] Overhead costs Overhead is the amount of money that is spent on running an NGO rather than on projects. [18] This includes office expenses,[18] salaries, banking and bookkeeping costs. What percentage of overall budget is spent on overhead is often used to judge an NGO with less than 10% being viewed as good. [18] The World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations states that ideally more than 80% should be spent on programs (less than 20% on overhead). 19] The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has specific guidelines on how high overhead can be to receive funding based on how the money is to be spent with overhead often needing to be less than 5-7%. [20] While the World Bank typically allows 10%. [21] A high percentage of overhead to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds. [22] High overhead costs may als o generate criticism with some claiming the certain NGOs with high overhead are being run simply to benefit the people working for them. [23] Monitoring and control In a March 2000 report on United Nations Reform priorities, former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan wrote in favor of international humanitarian intervention, arguing that the international community has a â€Å"right to protect†[24] citizens of the world against ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. On the heels of the report, the Canadian government launched the Responsibility to Protect R2P[25] project, outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. While the R2P doctrine has wide applications, among the more controversial has been the Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention and support of the coup in Haiti. 26] Years after R2P, the World Federalist Movement, an organization which supports â€Å"the creation of democratic global structures accountable to the citizens of the world and call for the division of international authority among separate agencies†, has launched Responsibility to Protect – Engaging Civil Society (R2PCS). A collaboration between the WFM and the Canadian government, this project aims to bring NGOs into lockstep with the principles outlined under the original R2P project.The governments of the countries an NGO works or is registered in may require reporting or other monitoring and oversight. Funders generally require reporting and assessment, such information is not necessarily publicly available. There may also be associations and watchdog organizations that research and publish details on the actions of NGOs working in particular geographic or program areas. [citation needed] In recent years, many large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments in an attempt to preempt NGO campaigns against certain corporate practices.As the logic goes, if corporations work with NGOs, NGOs will not work against corporations. In December 2007, The United States Department of Defense Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs) S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division under Force Health Protection & Readiness. [27] Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs in areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000. 05,[28] in 2005, requires DoD to regard stability-enhancing activities as a mission of importance equal to combat.In compliance with international law, DoD has necessarily built a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict such as Iraq, where the customary lead agencies (State Department and USAID) find it difficult to operate. Unlike the â€Å"co-option† strategy described for corporations, the OASD(HA) recognizes the neutrality of health as an essential service. International Health cultivates collaborative relationships with NGOs, albeit at arms-length, recognizing their trad itional independence, expertise and honest broker status.While the goals of DoD and NGOs may seem incongruent, the DoD's emphasis on stability and security to reduce and prevent conflict suggests, on careful analysis, important mutual interests. History International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least 1839. [29] It has been estimated that by 1914, there were 1083 NGOs. [30] International NGOs were important in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women's suffrage, and reached a peak at the time of the World Disarmament Conference. 31] However, the phrase â€Å"non-governmental organization† only came into popular use with the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71 of Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter[32] for a consultative role for organizations which are neither governments nor member states—see Consultative Status. The definition of â€Å"international NGO† (ING O) is first given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950: it is defined as â€Å"any international organization that is not founded by an international treaty†.The vital role of NGOs and other â€Å"major groups† in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27[33] of Agenda 21, leading to intense arrangements for a consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. [34] It has been observed that the number of INGO founded or dissolved matches the general â€Å"state of the world†, rising in periods of growth and declining in periods of crisis. [35] Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state.Further globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of the Washington consensus. [13] Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade Organization were centred mainly on the interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development.A prominent example of this is the World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to the World Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs. [36] In terms of environmental issues and sustainable development, the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 was the first to show the power of international NGOs, when about 2,400 representatives of NGOs came to play a central role in deliberations.Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of what should belong to popular movements of th e poor. Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now extensive. [37] Legal status The legal form of NGOs is diverse and depends upon homegrown variations in each country's laws and practices. However, four main family groups of NGOs can be found worldwide:[38] * Unincorporated and voluntary association * Trusts, charities and foundations * Companies not just for profit Entities formed or registered under special NGO or nonprofit laws The Council of Europe in Strasbourg drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organizations in 1986, which sets a common legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs. Critiques Stuart Becker provides the following summary of the primary critiques of NGOs: There’s a debate that, NGOs take the place of what should belon g to popular movements of the poor.Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racist manner in Third World countries and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the colonial era. Philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. â€Å"[39] Issa G. Shivji is one of Africa's leading experts on law and development issues as an author and academic. His critique on NGOs is found in two essays: â€Å"Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa† and â€Å"Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be†.Shivji argues that despite the good intentions of NGO leaders and activists, he is critical of the â€Å"objective effects of actions, regardless of their intentions†. [40] Shivji argues also that the sudden rise of NGOs are part of a neoliberal paradigm rather than pure altruistic motivations. He is critical of the current manifestations of NGOs wanting to change the world without understanding it, and that the imperial relationship continues today with the rise of NGOs. James Pfeiffer, in his case study of NGO involvement in Mozambique, speaks to the negative effects that NGO's have had on areas of health within the country.He argues that over the last decade, NGO's in Mozambique have â€Å"fragmented the local health system, undermined local control of health programs, and contributed to growing local social inequality† [41] He notes further that NGO's can be uncoordinated, creating parallel projects among different organizations, that pull health service workers away from their routine duties in order to serve the interests of the NGO's. This ultimately undermines local primary health care efforts, and takes away the governments ability to maintain agency over their own health sector. 42] J. Pfeiffer suggested a new model of collaboration between the NGO and the DPS (the Moza mbique Provincial Health Directorate). He mentioned the NGO should be ‘formally held to standard and adherence within the host country', for example reduce ‘showcase' projects and parallel programs that proves to be unsustainable. [43] Jessica Mathews once wrote in Foreign Affairs in 1997: â€Å"For all their strengths, NGOs are special interests. The best of them †¦ often suffer from tunnel vision, judging every public act by how it affects their particular interest†. 44] Since NGOs do have to worry about policy trade-offs, the overall impact of their cause might bring more harm to society. [45] Vijay Prashad argues that from the 1970s â€Å"The World Bank, under Robert McNamara, championed the NGO as an alternative to the state, leaving intact global and regional relations of power and production. â€Å"[46] Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist[47] in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racialized manner in third world countries, and that the y fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high colonial era.The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. [48] Popular movements in the global South such as, for instance, the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign in South Africa have sometimes refused to work with NGOs arguing that this will compromise their autonomy. [49][50] Another criticism of NGOs is that they are being designed and used as extensions of the normal foreign-policy instruments of certain Western countries and groups of countries. 51] Russian President Vladimir Putin made this accusation at the 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy in 2007, concluding that these NGOs â€Å"are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control. â€Å"[52] Also, Michael Bond wrote â€Å"Most large NGOs, such as Oxfam, the Red Cross, Cafod and Action Aid, are striving to make their aid provision more sustainable. But some, mostly in th e US, are still exporting the ideologies of their backers. † [53] Indeed, whether the NGOs are adiding for evangelical purposes or their ideological intentions, various NGOs are examined and accused of their nature.There has also been the overwhelming disaster of NGOs using white lies or misinformed advise to enact their campaigns. In other words, NGOs have been quite ignorant about critical issues because, as chief scientist at Greenpeace Doug Parr claims, these organizations have lost their efforts in being trully scientific and are now more self-interested. Rather than operating through science so as to be rationally and effectively practical, NGOs are now abusing the utilization of science in order to gain their own advantages.In the beginning, as Parr indicated, there was â€Å"‘a tendency among our critics to say that science is the only decision-making tool . . . but political and commerical interests are using science as a cover for getting their way. ‘â⠂¬ [54] At the same time, NGOs have shown themselves not to be very cooperative with other groups, as the previous policy-maker for the German branch of Friends of the Earth Jens Katjek acknowledged. â€Å"If NGOs want the best for the environment, he says, they have to learn to compromise. â€Å"[55] Challenges to legitimacy The issue of the legitimacy of NGOs raises a series of important questions.This is one of the most important assets possessed by an NGO, it is gained through a perception that they are an â€Å"independent voice†. [56][57] Their representation also emerges as an important question. Who bestows responsibilities to NGOs or INGOs and how do they gain the representation of citizens and civil society is still not scrutinized thoroughly. For instance, in the article, it is stated, â€Å"To put the point starkly: are the citizens of countries of the South and their needs represented in global civil society, or are citizens as well as their needs constructed by practices of representation?And when we realize that INGOs hardly ever come face to face with the people whose interests and problems they represent, or that they are not accountable to the people they represent, matters become even more troublesome. † [58] Moreover, the legitimacy and the accountability of NGOs on the point of their true nature are also emerging as important issues. Various perceptions and images on NGOs are provided, and usually implemented in an image as ‘non-state actors' or ‘influential representatives of civil society that advocate the citizen. Accountability may be able to provide this and also be able to assist activities by providing focus and direction[59] As non-state actors with considerable influence over the governance in many areas, concerns have been expressed over the extent to which they represent the views of the public and the extent to which they allow the public to hold them to account. [60] The origin of funding can have serious implications for the legitimacy of NGOs. In recent decades NGOs have increased their numbers and range of activities to a level where they have become increasingly dependent on a limited number of donors. 60] Consequently competition has increased for funding, as have the expectations of the donors themselves. [61] This runs the risk of donors adding conditions which can threaten the independence of NGOs, an over-dependence on official aid has the potential to dilute â€Å"the willingness of NGOs to speak out on issues which are unpopular with governments†. [57] In these situations NGOs are being held accountable by their donors, which can erode rather than enhance their legitimacy, a difficult challenge to overcome. Some commentators have also argued that the changes in where NGOs receive their funding has ultimately altered their functions. 57] NGOs have also been challenged on the grounds that they do not necessarily represent the needs of the developing world, thr ough diminishing the so-called â€Å"Southern Voice†. Some postulate that the North-South division exists in the arena of NGOs. [62] They question the equality of the relationships between Northern and Southern parts of the same NGOs as well as the relationships between Southern and Northern NGOs working in partnerships. This suggests a division of labour may develop, with the North taking the lead in advocacy and resource mobilisation whilst the South engages in service delivery in the developing world. 62] The potential implications of this may mean that the needs of the developing world are not addressed appropriately as Northern NGOs do not properly consult or participate in partnerships. The real danger in this situation is that western views may take the front seat and assign unrepresentative priorities. [63] The flood of NGOs has also been accused of damaging the public sector in multiple developing countries. The mismanagement of NGOs has resulted in the break down of public health care systems.Instead of promoting equity and alleviating poverty, NGOs have been under scrutiny for contributing to socioeconomic inequality and disempowering the services in the public sector of third world countries. [64] The scale and variety of activities in which NGOs participate has grown rapidly since the 1980s, witnessing particular expansion in the 1990s. [65] This has presented NGOs with need to balance the pressures of centralisation and decentralisation. By centralising NGOs, particularly those that operate at an international level, they can assign a common theme or set of goals.Conversely it is also advantageous to decentralise as this increases the chances of an NGO behaving flexibly and effectively to localised issues. [66] See also * Charitable organization * Civil society * Community foundation * NGO-isation * Non-governmental organizations by country * Non-profit organization * Not just for profit * Occupational health and safety * Track II diplomac y References 1. ^ Anheier et al. , â€Å"Global Civil Society 2001†, 2001 2. ^ â€Å"Hobbled NGOs wary of Medvedev†. Chicago Tribune. May 7, 2008. 3. ^ â€Å"India: More NGOs, than schools and health centres†. OneWorld. net. July 7, 2010.Retrieved 2011-10-07. 4. ^ â€Å"First official estimate: An NGO for every 400 people in India†. The Indian Express. July 7, 2010. 5. ^ a b c d e f g h Willetts, Peter. â€Å"What is a Non-Governmental Organization? â€Å". UNESCO Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems. City University London. Retrieved 18 July 2012. 6. ^ Iriye, Akira (2004). Global community  : the role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world (1. paperback print. ed. ). Berkeley, Calif. [u. a. ]: Univ. of California Press. ISBN  9780520231283. 7. ^ inspad. org 8. ^ Keck and Sikkink. â€Å"Environmental Advocacy Networks†.Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 9. ^ McCormick, John. â€Å"The Role of Environme ntal NGOs in International Regimes†. Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 10. ^ a b World Bank Criteria defining NGO[dead link] 11. ^ 100   LSE. ac. uk, Mukasa, Sarah. Are expatriate staff necessary in international development NGOs? A case study of an international NGO in Uganda. Publication of the Centre for Civil Society at London School of Economics. 2002, p. 11–13. 12. ^ â€Å"Poll shows power of AIPAC drops slightly†. Jewish News Weekly of Northern California. 1999-12-19. Retrieved 2007-06-25. 13. a b Pawel Zaleski Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector, [in:] Gawin, Dariusz ; Glinski, Piotr [ed. ]: â€Å"Civil Society in the Making†, IFiS Publishers, Warszawa 2006 14. ^ Intractable Conflict Knowledge Base Project of the Conflict Research Consortium at the University of Colorado. [dead link] 15. ^ NG-Uh-O – The trouble with humanitarianism David Rieff, June 10, 2010, The New Republic 16. ^ Sarah Jane Gilbert (2008-09-08). â€Å"Harvard Business School, HBS Cases: The Value of Environmental Activists†. Hbswk. hbs. edu. Retrieved 011-12-20. 17. ^ Greenpeace, Annual Report 2008 (pdf) 18. ^ a b c http://www. fundsforngos. org/budget-for-ngos/defining-terms-budget/ 19. ^ â€Å"Code of Ethics & Conduct for NGOs†. Retrieved 11 April 2012. 20. ^ â€Å"National NGOs Serving as PRs Excluded from the Global Fund's Policy on Percentage-Based Overhead Costs†. 2012. 21. ^ Kuby, Christopher Gibbs  ; Claudia Fumo  ; Thomas (1999). Nongovernmental organizations in World Bank supported projects  : a review (2. ed. ed. ). Washington, D. C. : World Bank. pp. 21. ISBN  978-0-8213-4456-9. 22. ^ Crowther, edited by Guler Aras, David (2010).NGOs and social responsibility (1st ed. ed. ). Bingley, UK: Emerald. pp. 121. ISBN  978-0-85724-295-2. 23. ^ Kassahun, Samson (2004). Social capital for synergic partnership  : development of poor localities in urban Ethiopia (1 . Aufl. ed. ). Gottingen: Cuvillier. pp. 153. ISBN  978-3-86537-222-2. 24. ^ [1][dead link] 25. ^ [2][dead link]  PDF  (434  KB) 26. ^ Engler, Fenton, Yves, Anthony (2005). Canada in Haiti: Waging War on the Poor Majority. Vancouver, Winnipeg: RED Publishing. p. 120. ISBN  978-1-55266-168-0. Retrieved 2011-10-30. 27. ^ OSD. mil 28. ^ http://www. dtic. mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/300005p. df 29. ^ The Rise and Fall of Transnational Civil Society: The Evolution of International Non-Governmental Organizations since 1839. By T. R. Davies City University London Working Paper. Steve Charnovitz, â€Å"Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance, Michigan Journal of International Law, Winter 1997. 30. ^ Subcontracting Peace – The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. Edited by: Richmond, Oliver P. , and Carey, Henry F. Published by Ashgate, 2005. Page 21. 31. ^ Davies, Thomas Richard (2007). The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: the Campaign for D isarmament between the Two World Wars.ISBN  978-90-04-16258-7. 32. ^ Charter of the United Nations: Chapter X[dead link] 33. ^ United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. â€Å"Agenda 21 – Chapter 27: Strengthening the Role of Non-governmental Organizations: Partners for Sustainable Development, Earth Summit, 1992†. Habitat. igc. org. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 34. ^ â€Å"1996/31. Consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations†. Un. org. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 35. ^ Boli, J. and Thomas, G. M. (1997) World Culture in the World Polity: A century of International Non-Governmental Organization.American Sociological Review. pp. 177 36. ^ Bartlett, Lauren (2005). â€Å"NGO Update†. Human Rights Brief 12 (3): 44–45. 37. ^ Stone, Diane. â€Å"Transfer Agents and Global Networks in the ‘Transnationalisation’ of Policy†, Journal of European Public Policy. austiniskewl, 11(3) 2004: 545â⠂¬â€œ66. 38. ^ Grant B. Stillman (2007), Global Standard NGOs, Geneva: Lulu, pp. 13-14. 39. ^ Stuart Alan Becker (January 28, 2011). â€Å"The definitive description of a non-government organisation†. The Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved 2011-09-19. 40. ^ Shivji, Issa G. (2007). Silence in NGO discourse: the role and future of NGOs in Africa.Oxford, UK: Fahamu. p. 84. ISBN  978-0-9545637-5-2. 41. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (4):725. 42. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (4):725-738. 43. ^ J. Pfeiffer. (2003). International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (2003) 725-738 44. ^ Jessica T.Mathews (Jan. – Feb. , 1997). â€Å"Power Shift†. Foreign Affair s. Retrieved 2012-06-01. 45. ^ Bond, M. (2000) The Backlash against NGOs. Prospect (magazine). 46. ^ Mother Teresa: A Communist View, Vijay Prashad, Australian Marxist Review, No. 40 August 1998 47. ^ Abahlali baseMjondoloRethinking Public Participation from below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 48. ^ See his Damming the Flood (Verso, London, 2007. ) 49. ^ Building unity in diversity: Social movement activism in the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, Sophie Oldfield & Kristian Stokke, 2004 50. Ashraf Cassiem: South African Resistance Against Evictions, Marlon Crump, Poor Magazine, 2009 51. ^ ‘NGO’: The Guise of Innocence, by Jenny O'Connor, New Left Project, 2012 52. ^ Putin, Vladimir (February 10, 2007). Speech and the Following Discussion at the Munich Conference on Security Policy (Speech). 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy. Munich, Germany. Retrieved February 28, 2012. 53. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp . 321. Print 54. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp. 323. Print 55. Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 200, pp. 323. Print 56. ^ Weber, N. and Christopherson, T. (2002) The influence of non-givernmental organisations on the creation of Natura 2000 during the European policy process. Forest policy and Economics. 4(1), pp. 1-12. 57. ^ a b c Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) NGO Performance and Accountability: Introduction and Overview. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd. Chapter 11. 58. ^ Neera Chandhoke. (2005) â€Å"How Global Is Global Civil Society? Journal of World-Systems Research, 11, 2, 2005, pp. 326-327. 59. ^ Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) Beyond the Magic Bullet? Lessons and Conclusions. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthsca n Publications Ltd. Chapter 12. 60. ^ a b Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (1996) Too Close for comfort? The impact of official aid on Non-Governmental Organisations. â€Å"World Development. † 24(6), pp. 961-973. 61. ^ Ebrahim, A. (2003) Accountability in practice: Mechanisms for NGOs. â€Å"World Development. † 31(5), pp. 813-829. 62. ^ a b Lindenberg, M. and Bryant, C. 2001) Going Global:Transforming Relief and Development NGOs. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press. 63. ^ Jenkins, R. (2001) Corporate Codes of Conduct: Self-Regulation in a Global Economy. â€Å"Technology, Business and Society Programme Paper Number 2. † United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. 64. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science ; Medicine 56(4):725-738. 65. ^ Avina, J. (1993) The Evolutionary Life Cycles if Non-Governmental Development Organisations. â€Å"Public Administration and Devel opment. † 13(5), pp. 53-474. 66. ^ Anheier, H. and Themudo, N. (2002) Organisational forms of global civil society: Implications of going global. In: Anheier, H. Glasius, M. Kaldor, M, ed 2002. Further reading * Mark Butler, with Thulani Ndlazi, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott, and Nomusa Sokhela. NGO Practice and the Possibility of Freedom Church Land Programme, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa 2007 Churchland. co. za[dead link] * Olivier Berthoud, NGOs: Somewhere between Compassion, Profitability and Solidarity Envio. org. ni, PDF Edinter. net Envio, Managua, 2001 * Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats.NGOs ; Foreign Aid, Oxford: James Currey * Steve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * Cox, P. N. Shams, G. C. Jahn, P. Erickson and P. Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOs and agricultural research institutes. Cambodian Journ al of Agriculture 6: 1-8. IRRI. org[dead link] * Ann Florini, ed. The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001). Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Cornell University Press * Rodney Bruce Hall, and Biersteker, Thomas. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 2003) * Dorthea Hilhorst, The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books, 2003 * Joan Roelofs, Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003). Ian Smillie, ; Minear, Larry, editors. The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a Calculating World, Kumarian Press, 2004 * Simon Maxwell and Diane Stone. (eds) Global Knowledge Networks and International Development: Bridges Across Boundaries (Routledge, 2005: I-xix; 1-192). * Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, New York  :Cambridge University Press, 2005 * Thomas Ward, editor. Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the Political Economy of NGOs, Paragon House, 2005 * H. Teegen, 2003. International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments’, Journal of International Management. * Jennifer Brinkerhoff, Stephen C. Smith, and Hildy Teegen, NGOs and the Millennium Development Goals: Citizen Action to Reduce Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. * S. Goonatilake. Recolonisation: Foreign Funded NGO's in Sri Lanka, Sage Publications 2006. * Teegen, H. Doh, J. , Vachani, S. , 2004. â€Å"The importance of nongovernmental organisation in global governance and value creation: an international business research agendaâ€Å" in Journal of International Business Studies.Washington: Vol. 35, Iss. 6. * K. Rodman, (1998). â€Å"‘Think Global ly, Punish Locally: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions† in Ethics in International Affairs, vol. 12. * Grant B. Stillman (2006), NGO Law and Governance: a resource book, ADB Institute, Tokyo, ISBN 4-89974-013-1. More useful are regional histories and analyses of the experience of NGOs. Specific works (although this is by no means an exhaustive list) include: * T. R. Davies, The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: The Campaign for Disarmament between the Two World Wars, Brill, 2007.ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights & the Africa Poor, University of California Press, 2006 * Carrie Meyer, The Economics and Politics of NGOs in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, July 30, 1999 * Chhandasi Pandya. 2006. Private Authority and Disaster Relief: The Cases of Post-Tsunami Aceh and Nias. Critical Asian Studies. Vol. 38, No. 2. Pg. 298-308. Routledge Press: Taylor & Francis Group * Maha Abdelrahman, Civil Society Exp osed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, 2004.Al-Ahram Weekly has done a review of the book. * Sangeeta Kamat, Development hegemony: NGOs and The State in India, Delhi, New York; Oxford University Press, 2002 * Adama Sow, Chancen und Risiken von NGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea wahrend der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 (German) * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq†, in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ.Press, 2007. * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations† (2005) 41-69. * Werker & Ahmed (2008): What do Non-Governmental Organizations do? * Steve Charnovitz, â€Å"Two Centuries of Partic ipation: NGOs and International Governance,† Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, Winter 1997, at 183-286. * Abahlali baseMjondolo Rethinking Public Participation from Below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 * Akpan S. M (2010): Establishment of Non-Governmental Organizations (In Press). Edward A. L. Turner (2010) Why Has the Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations Exploded since 1960? , Cliodynamics, 1, (1). Retrieved from: [3] * Eugene Fram & Vicki Brown, How Using the Corporate Model Makes a Nonprofit Board More Effective & Efficient – Third Edition (2011), Amazon Books, Create Space Books. The de facto reference resource for information and statistics on International NGOs (INGOs) and other transnational organisational forms is the Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union of International Associations. David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji (2009): Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. New York: Routledge. * Issa G. Sh ivji (2007): Silence in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi: Fahamu. * Jens Steffek and Kristina Hahn (2010): Evaluating Transnational NGOs: Legitimacy, Accountability, Representation. New York: Palgrave, Macmillan. External links * NGO Search: NGO/IGO google custom search engine built by the Govt Documents Round Table (GODORT) of the American Library Association. * Interface journal special issue on NGOs * A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations Historical Database of International NGOs * Duke University NGO Library * Global Policy Forum: The site includes articles on a wide range of aspects of NGOs. * NGOs – Non-Governmental Organizations * What is a Non-Governmental Organization? 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Thursday, August 29, 2019

RFID E-Commerce Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

RFID E-Commerce Paper - Essay Example Instead, each item put in a cart is communicated to an electronic reader and rung instantly. Once the reader receives the communication about the items picked it connects to a larger network then sends the same information to the retailers and the manufacturers of the items picked. After being notified, the manufacturers and retailers inform the shopper’s bank and the cost of the goods bought are deducted from the shopper’s account. Although initially majorly used to track cattle, RFID is today used to track consumer products from the moment they are manufactured to the time they reach the shopping cart. The other uses to which the RFID technology is put include tracking airline passengers, vehicles, pets and Alzheimer's patients. Its advantages notwithstanding, RFID technologies have been criticized by privacy watchers as it may be exploited by individuals and agencies to infringe on the privacy of the public by tracking peoples’ preferences and tastes. Worth no ting is that research has shown that more than 60 percent of businesses have not yet started on RFID tagging technologies. In addition, research reports indicate that even the businesses that have implemented RFID have only done so to satisfy customer compliance demands. That is, these businesss have not rolled out their RFID programs to enhance warehouse and logistics operations. Wal-Mart is one of the consumer products outlets that have previously trial to roll out a RFID program to avoid the hustling resulting from queues and other disadvantages of the Universal Product Code. This paper explores the reasons that hinder RFID deployment in Wal-Mart and the differences between the firm’s attempts to deploy the program. Wal-Mart-Case Study Wal-Mart is among the first retail outlets to try implementing RFID on its consumer goods as early as 2003. However, the plan to implement the ambitious RFID plan targeting the firm’s clothing goods would later be rolled out in 2005. First to be tagged with the Electronic Product Code (EPC) in the form of RFID in 2003 were the firm’s 3 Wal-Mart distribution centers in Texas1. Unfortunately, these plans rapidly fizzled, forcing Wal-Mart to look to other suppliers for the right value proposition. On realizing that they were absorbing the extra tagging costs, the suppliers of WalMart’s RFID tagging pushed back. Since the RFID tagging initiative by the firm seemed lacking and faced myriad challenges, it shifted its focus on other priorities such as sustainability and changes in the management of its inventory. Later, the firm would start a small scale RFID tagging at its Sam’s Club warehouse club chain where it started by tagging only at the pallet level and charged back the suppliers who did not RFID-compliance. Unfortunately, this program also flopped in early 2009. The failure of this program frustrated not only Wal-Mart but also other top level consumer goods outlets such as Procter & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark as the end-to-end supply chain visibility benefits offered by using RFID were stopped. Similarly affected were the manufacturers of RFID Tags and software firms that had rather high expectations of the Wal-Mart rollout program. Current RFID Tagging Programme There seems to be another gold-rush opportunity for these supply chain stakeholders affected by the stalling of the earlier rollout plans by

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Eurozone Financial Crisis Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Eurozone Financial Crisis - Literature review Example According to David Brat, the primary causes for the occurrence of the financial crisis is due to a lack of regulation, bad investment decisions, historically low-interest rates and major shocks to the economy (Brat 1). David Brat also stated that the housing crisis is caused by the government by forcing mortgage investors. Nick Timiraos tries to present the viewpoint of Brat in the journal. The paper of Brat also focuses on the largest mortgage lender on the nation which is Countrywide Financial Corporation. The author illustrated that loss in one corner of the mortgage market of the U.S. leads to the cause of the major recession. Moreover, this cause has fallen in the financial system in a broader way. The fresh evidence from the data has been discussed by Joe Parkinson in the journal â€Å"Euro crisis hits emerging Europe. The manufacturing activity of some of the emerging nations such as the Czech Republic, Poland, etc. sunk into the weakest level (Parkinson 1). The paradox of fi nancial crises by Timothy F. Geithner is based on the devastating impact of financial crises (Geithner 1). It has been estimated that in the year 2008, 16% of the wealth of American Household has been lost. Moreover, the rate of unemployment rose to 25%. Geithner tries to present the outcome terrifying autumn of 2008. The foundation of the financial crisis has been effectively incorporated in the three articles to provide vivid knowledge to the readers about the outcome of the crisis.Some of the key issues provided by author Daniel Harari on regarding the cause of financial crisis are misdirected assessment of risks, trade imbalances, and economic divergence. Member of the European Central Bank, Peter Praet states that the collapse of the mortgage market in the United States lead to the start of the Euro financial crisis. Moreover, the author also reveals that financial derivative products are a complex network and held globally. This is the reason which leads to the start of the fi nancial crisis which stated by David Brat and presented on the journal by Nick Timiraos. Two of the key problems of the Euro zone crisis problem are lost competitiveness, deficits and debt.

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Contractors and Consultants Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Contractors and Consultants - Essay Example Government contracting of tax collection services and legal services brings a set of benefits that are both economic and efficiency based. Maintaining a legal firm just to cater for government legal requirements would create an enormous financial burden on the government and in most cases lack efficiency. The government contracting for legal services ensures that the best representatives are acquired for the task at hand. Legal outsourcing is a reform resulting into a more efficient public service by the private sector (Joyce, 2013). Outsourcing of services that bear strong responsibilities to the public safety and those that can affect the Nation adversely is not morally right in the public interest. Some outsourcing activities result in moral degradation of the public while others threaten the diplomatic and safety measures of the government functioning (Joyce, 2013). Outsourcing the correction services has led to private- prison providers to push for mandatory minimum sentences and to sign contracts warranting to keep prison beds entirely filled (Joyce, 2013). This case is an example of a moral degradation where the correction system gets turned from a rehabilitation program to a financial endeavor. The case of Snowden, who worked for a private contractor, who leaked top-secret information affecting the national security is an example of why top government services should be maintained at government control (Joyce,

Monday, August 26, 2019

Advance Directives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Advance Directives - Essay Example End-of-life wishes are not common among many people. This is because individuals allow life to take its natural course. In the process, aggressive care is provided until life is lost, whether or not the illness is terminal. Moreover, many people fail to draft a living will citing ethical concerns in the society. For others, executing advance directives is deemed to conflict with the essence of medicine. As a result, majority of people shun advance directives. In order to complete an advance directive, it is important for people to know what it takes or entails to make an end-of-life decision (Understanding Advance Directives). More people will complete advance directives following a vibrant awareness creation. Without awareness, people will continue to shun advance directives. On the same note, understanding the complexities surrounding a terminal illness is critical. Costs keep accumulating as the patient nears death every day that passes. It is, therefore, important for people to understand the ethics, rights, and benefits associated with end-of-life

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Why America should still be on guard against Terrorist Essay

Why America should still be on guard against Terrorist - Essay Example Nevertheless, its attempts to control others, is loathed. Since the 9/11 radical attacks, the war and America’s move changed to mean rather different for the U.S. men in service, which has used up the last decade combating all kinds of unconventional enemies who use guerilla warfare and are more ephemeral than ever. The presidents Bush and Obama have employed new setting to sanction military action in regions most Americans know little of like Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, and Yemen. The intimidations facing the United States are so immense and ever shifting, they entail diverse responses of force and not essentially the endorsement of assembly. The country should still be in the guard for terrorist attacks since the concepts of terrorism are changing daily. The kind of terrorism in the globe today is constantly changing in terms of the strategies that make it more complicated and harder to track. The acts of terrorism are constantly aimed at the public in terms of maiming and cau sing fear to spread across the nations. US has always made it clear that these attacks are not going without response judging by the advances the country has made to counter al kinds of terrorism. The threats on terrorism are changing from the 9/11 kind to more diverse types of terrorism. The fight against terrorism in the country is more evident in the sense that more radical are coming up with better ways to do their bidding. The advance in the technology had made it easier for them to articulate their terrorist acts on the country. The evolution of the terrorists attacks has changed from the normal forms into maritime, cyber, and even the economic biological and outer space terrorism. The initial official response picked up in America after the bombardments in Boston are heartening. President Barack took pains to continue being calm, contravening with the appalling conventions of the Bush management to guarantee reprisal while arousing the rule of law. Obama knows that the United States needs no new terrorist laws, no new regime agencies, no increase of police and intelligence operations and, the majority of all, no more provocative speeches. The staged search for the two bombing suspects was incontrovertibly a manhunt, and the social networks, particularly Twitter, were filled with false allegations and unbearable invective. However, none of this transforms the feature of Obama's actions, whose speech was patriotic in an optimistic intellect, relaxed and packed with assurance in the president's own, usually legitimized general power. This was in line with the act of Queen Elizabeth II who as a role model managed to set a comparable tone after the London attacks in 2005 (Bruce 4). She gave her subjects of her condolences and showed her sadness and compassion for the fatalities, she thanked the crisis services and the population of London, and then she said, shortly and in brief, that those who perpetrate these atrocious acts against blameless people should know that they do not change the lives of the people they hurt. This is what the voice of development sounds like, and it cannot be permissible to fall silent simply because a few cave inhabitants are continually feeling marginalized. At present and in the future, people should always recap the judgment of the Queen's and Obama's calm words each time terror occurs once again. In fact, the message to such killers ought to always be the same they will never change the lives of the ones they hurt. They can propel bombs, but the culture, the values, and the maimed society grow mightier than the desire to annihilate them. These varied attacks are some of the reasons that

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Reducing Incidences of Child Obesity Research Proposal

Reducing Incidences of Child Obesity - Research Proposal Example The imbalance leads to such weight differences and redefines the way children will develop later in life. Genetic factors also form a huge part of the obesity trends. Many children are seen to be susceptible to obesity-conducive genes, which makes it easier to develop such weight problems if the parents do not offer a chance to capitalize on retaining a healthy lifestyle always. Â  The important thing is to generate new understanding of what obesity is all about. The case involving the utility of the resources available for the sake of intervening in the very early years as a way of preventing the obesity from taking shape and allowing the society to move from a rational way of dealing with the issue to an emotional one. Many of the parents fear that keeping their children from the junk they are used to may be a way of keeping them away from themselves (Rippe, 2013). This means that they do not offer them any guidance that could provide them with a chance of dealing with the issue when it is still in its early stages (Gorard, 2013). Evidence from difference sources highlights the impact that lifestyle choices could have in tracking obesity and allowing adults to lose weight and keep fit, as well as allow the children to choose better lifestyles. The purpose of introducing the changes from a tender age is the fact that they are easily receptive at this age ( Rippe, 2013). Preventing its occurrence is essential as a way of managing the weight issues amongst the children. Â  Obesity amongst children has in many developed countries reached epidemic levels. This means that so many children are falling into this trap when they are much younger than they should be. At least 25% of the children in the US alone are in the overweight category with 11% of these falling into the obese category (Ahima, 2013).

Should the Government Pass a Fat Tax Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Should the Government Pass a Fat Tax - Article Example The underlining belief is that in increasing the cost of these products, individuals will be more motivated to pursue a healthy lifestyle. Still, some health activists counter that such a tax is wrong-headed in that rather than imbuing individuals with a sense of personal responsibility, it attempts to arbitrarily enforce healthy living. This essay considers the nature of the fat tax, arguing that in terms of the current social climate such a tax is justified.   In considering the nature of a fat tax it’s necessary to consider whether there is a legitimate connection between increased food costs and their reduced consumption. A recent research article conducted by the University of Minnesota titled ‘Pricing Effects on Food Choices’ investigated this connection (French 2003). This report indicated that there was a significant connection between increased food prices and the reduced consumption of these foods. Consider French (2003) when she writes,   Compared w ith usual price conditions, price reductions resulted in a four-fold increase in fresh fruit sales and a two-fold increase in baby carrot sales. Both studies demonstrate that price reductions are an effective strategy to increase the purchase of more healthful foods in community-based settings such as work sites and schools.In these regards, the study indicates that in increasing the cost of high-calorie food there was a corresponding increase in the purchase of healthier food options.

Friday, August 23, 2019

Effecyive team and preformance management Essay

Effecyive team and preformance management - Essay Example Challenges that can be faced by the recommendations 13 8. Conclusion 14 1. Summary The report highlights, analyzes and evaluates the team performance of the Electron Company, a small manufacturing company in North of England. The report identifies the critical factors that impact the team performance. The first section elaborates Bruce Tuckman’s Team Development Model and critically analyses how team dynamics and team formation has occurred in the case study. The second section of the report evaluates the effect of social loafing and cohesion on the success of an efficient team. The fourth section elaborates the recommendations for changes that are needed in the team focusing on the leadership and management styles. The last section points out the challenges that are faced by the recommendations made for the changes. Lastly a conclusion is given to sum up all that is learnt from the report and recommended in the report. 2. Introduction The report aims at analysing the Electron Company team case study with the help of Bruce Tuckman’s Team Development Model. It evaluates the performance of the team with reference to this model. Recommendations are also given to bring in changes in the working condition of the company. Electron Company, established in 1997, is a small manufacturing company which is located in North of England. It manufactures components for the telecommunications sector. The UK headquarters have 150 employees with 50 employees in the manufacturing department. The company follows a traditional business structure consist of sale/ marketing, engineering, human resource and manufacturing. It has both full-time staffs and part-time staffs. The electronic department has eight teams and each of which is named according to a colour. The team colours are white, red, blue green, silver, aqua, purple and yellow. The teams consist of 10 team members, some are on hired on temporary contracts and others are the full-time employees. Each teamâ€⠄¢s objective is to attain improved productivity within 2 months after the formation their team. The performances of the team are judged on the basis of how many electrical components they have made within this two months period. The team members are rewarded for achieving their improvements in the productivity. All the members of the successful team are paid bonus. The performance of the team is analyzed based on the Tuckman’s model of team development. 3. Bruce Tuckman’s Model analysing the formation of the team Bruce Tuckman identified five stages of development that every team practices and he also recommended that all teams confront a fairly unproductive primary stage before becoming an independent unit. The five stages are as follows: 3.1. Forming In the first phase the team formation takes place. The individual's behaviour is determined by a desire to be acknowledged by the others and also avoid controversy or conflict with others. Serious problems and feelings are seriously avoided and the people focus on being busy with their routine work. Individuals also collect information about each other and also about the scope of the task and how to advance with it. The team members gather and learn about the challenges and opportunities that they face and then they agree on the process which they will follow to eradicate the challenges and grab new opportunities. They are motivated for not to be ignorant of the problems and objectives of the team. Team members do their best for the well being of

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Globalizing an Australian Wine Company Essay Example for Free

Globalizing an Australian Wine Company Essay The company’s strategic vision is to become the world’s first truly global wine company. As CEO and managing director of BRL Hardy Europe, Carson’s contribution and achievements had been significant with a 10 fold increase in sales volume, in a tenure spanning just seven years. He successfully turned around Hardy’s U. K. business by implementing cost cutting initiatives and ensuring strong systems, policies, and control. Millar, CEO and managing director at BRL Hardy followed a decentralized approach to management. He believed in delegation and adequately integrated culture and management style into the merged corporation. The U. K. market contributed significantly to BRL Hardy’s revenues and represented 40% of Australian wine exports. In U. K. , the fighting brands, namely, Stamps and Nottage Hill, were positioned at price points of 2. 99 and 3. 69 pounds respectively. As low price good quality wines, they accounted for 80% of the value and volume of the Hardy brand sales. As the image of these brands began to erode, Carson decided to relaunch them by relabeling and repositioning the wines. Carson insisted that sales performance in U. K. depended on efficient labeling that should not be completely dictated by the Australian management. Although management was skeptical about local control over branding, labeling, and pricing decisions, the move significantly boosted the fighting brands’ sales. As the fighting brands gradually moved up the price points, there was an opportunity for an entry level wine that could be priced lower than 4. 9 pounds. In line with the company’s vision of becoming an international wine company, Carson decided to tap non-Australian wine sources and develop a line of branded products that could utilize the company’s strong distribution channels. This strategy would provide vital scale economies, minimize harvest risk, capture rationalizing suppliers, and avoid currency-driven price variations. Carson propose d the brand D’istinto, an Italian venture with a Sicilian based winery. He wanted to develop a recognizable brand which was easy to buy and had global potential. The wine would be positioned to the average wine consumer and would help the company leverage distribution. The Australian headquarters believed that D’istinto would eat into the fighting brands’ share as they were positioned at almost similar price points. Carson’s earlier Chilean venture, Mapocho had proven troublesome and Millar was doubtful if the European unit could support another brand. While Millar recognized U. K. s strong performance and wanted to give Carson as much freedom as possible, the reality was that the Italian venture would stretch the tight human resources of the European unit and dilute focus from the overall corporate strategy. While the Italian venture was being proposed, the Australian headquarters had launched Banrock Station, an environmentally responsible product at a similar price point. Australian management believed that the brand had global po tential and had instructed areas to launch it appropriately. Miller, away from the frontline and external demands of the local customers, has to support Carson’s entrepreneurial experimentation and dynamism. However, the proposal to launch D’istinto should not be approved. It is imperative that the business strategy fit within the broader corporate strategy of the organization. Although Carson’s proposal represented strategic interests, it ran counter the corporate strategy of maximizing global efficiency. D’istinto’s launch would certainly come with financial implications and would also stretch the operating capabilities of the European unit. On the other hand, Banrock Station had already established itself in a few markets and a strong launch in Europe would only increase scale economies. D’istinto had an innovative strategy with catchy and attractive labeling and a distinct image capturing the Mediterranean lifestyle. This positioning would definitely appeal to the mature U. K. consumer and also to the U. K. retailers, who represented the majority of sales. However, there is no certainty that this strategy would prove equally successful globally. While D’istinto would provide short term results, it is important to understand the long term viability that Banrock Station offers. Global consumers are increasingly emerging into environmentally conscious populations that expect corporations to take responsibility of natural resources and the environment. Although through D’istinto, Carson aims to build a global brand, Banrock Station appears to be better positioned in a converging global market. In order to build a true global brand, Miller must establish consistency across organizational units and ensure that the vision is shared by all.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

The Influence Of Bob Marley History Essay

The Influence Of Bob Marley History Essay One of the most influential people in music is Bob Marley. He was a heroic figure and in some ways he still is. His music has inspired many people and brought happiness to many people around the world. Marleys viewpoints on racism, freedom, and love made him and his music unforgettable. Robert Nesta Marley, better known as Bob, was born in Rhoden Hall to the north of Jamaica on February 6, 1945. His father, Captain Norval Marley, was a fifty-year-old white quartermaster attached to the British West Indian regiment and his mother, Cedella Booker, was an eighteen-year-old black woman. She became pregnant so they married to legitimize the child. Bobs mixed race wasnt uncommon but the mix of classes was. His father helped financially, but he left and he rarely saw his son. Cedella and Bob moved to Trench Town, which was one of Kingstons poorest cities. Trench Town was also known for its music and it was an inspiration for Bobs music. Bob did not find much success at first being a solo artist, but he found more success when joining his friends to form a band. In 1963, Bob Marley, Neville Bunny ORiley Livingston, and Peter McIntosh formed the Wailing Wailers. They named themselves the Wailing Wailers because of their sad background and upcoming. It was also around this time that Bob started exploring his spiritual side. Both religious and political, the Rastafarian movement started in Jamaica in 1930s and drew its beliefs from many sources, including Jamaican-born black nationalist Marcus Garvey, the Old Testament, and their African heritage and culture. Bob eventually joined the movement in regard to using marijuana as wisdom weed that had grown on the grave of Solomon. Bobs belief in One World, One Love was inspired by his belief in Rastafari. It not only influenced his music and spirit, but it also influenced his appearance. Rasta men embraced the look of long dreadlocks and beards. Bob came to embrace the appearance, the weed, the movement, and all of the powerful aspects of Rasta. Bob especially embraced the signature music of Rasta known as reggae, and then made a career of conquering it. The Wailing Wailers released their first single, Simmer Down, during the last weeks of 1963. By the following January it was number one in the Jamaican charts, a position it held for the next two months. Simmer Down caused a sensation in Jamaica and The Wailing Wailers began recording regularly. Over the next few years the Wailing Wailers put together some thirty sides that properly established the group. Despite their popularity, the ecomnomics of keeping the group together was too difficult. Bobs mother, Cedella, had remarried and moved to Delaware in the United States where she had saved up enough money to send Bob an airline ticket. She wanted Bob to start a new life. Before moving to America Bob met a young girl called Rita Anderson and, on February 1966, they were married. Bob stayed and worked in America just long enough to finance his real ambition: music. After only eight months in America, Bob returned to Jamaica. Marley joined back up with Neville Bunny ORiley Livingston and Peter McIntosh to re-form the group, now known as The Wailers. In the summer of 1971 Bob accepted an invitation from Johnny Nash to accompany him to Sweden. By spring 1972 the entire Wailers were in London to promote their single Reggae on Broadway. Instead they ended up stranded in Britain. Bob sought out, Chris Blackwell, the founder of the Basing Street Studios of Island Records. Blackwell knew of Marleys Jamaican reputation. The group was offered a deal unique in Jamaican terms. The Wailers were advanced money to make an album and, for the first time, a reggae band had access to the best recording facilities. Before this deal, it was considered that reggae sold only on singles and cheap compilation albums. The Wailers first album Catch A Fire broke all the rules: it was beautifully packaged and heavily promoted. It was the start of a long climb to international fame and recognition. Bob Marley and The Wailers were taking reggae into the mainstream. Marley had a growing political importance in Jamaica, where his firm Rastafarian stance had found a strong quality with the ghetto youth. By a way of thanking the Jamaican people, Marley decided to hold a free concert at Kingstons National Heroes Park on December 5, 1976. The idea was to emphasize the need for peace in the slums of the city, where warring factions had brought turmoil and murder. Not everyone was happy about this. On the night before the concert gunmen broke into Marleys home and shot him, his wife, and the band manager. Luckily, they all survived and out of defiance of the gunmen he played a brief concert anyway. In 1978 the band capitalized on their chart success with their album Kaya. The album was number four in the UK the week after its release. That album say Marley in a different mood; a collection of love songs and tributes to the power of ganja. There were three more events in 1978 that were all of extraordinary significance to Bob Marley. He returned to Jamaica to play the One Love Concert in front of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. He was then invited to the United Nations in New York to accept the organizations Medal of Peace. Bob also visited Africa for the first time near the end of 1978, going to Kenya and Ethiopia, spiritual home of Ratafari. The greatest honor the band ever received was in April, 1980, when the band was invited to Zimbabwe to play the countrys Independence Ceremony. A month later the Wailers released a new album Uprising. The band then embarked on a major European tour, breaking festival records throughout the continent. The schedule included a 100,000-capacity crowd in Milan, the largest show in the bands history. At the end of the tour Bob and the Wailers played two shows at madison square garden, but immediately afterwards Bob became very sick. Bob had hurt his toe while playing football three years earlier and the wound became cancerous and was belatedly treated in Miami. By 1980 the cancer had begun to spread through his body. He fought the disease for eight months. At the beginning of May Bob Marley left Europe for his Jamaican home, but it was a journey he would not complete. Bob Marley died in a Miami Hospital on May 11, 1981, only one month after being awarded Jamacias Order of Merit, the nations third highest honor. His work stretched across two decades and yet still remains timeless and universal. Today you can still see his influence in many ways. There are a lot of bands that still play covers or tributes to Bob Marley. He only lived to be 36-years-old, but his legend continues.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Proactive Network Defence Techniques in Security Attacks

Proactive Network Defence Techniques in Security Attacks 1. Introduction Network Security in the twenty-first century is one of the critical aspects for the effective management and protection of the enterprise data alongside its sustained operations (Stallings, 2007[1]). This is naturally because of the fact that the threat for network security has increased from passive attacks to active breach of the security through exploiting the vulnerabilities of the network and its set-up as argued by McClure et al, 2007[2]. This makes it clear that apart from the traditional security measures in and organization, it is essential to launch a pro-active approach to identify and prevent attacks on the network. In this report a critical review on the application of proactive network defence techniques to help identify and prevent security attacks to enable network defence is presented to the reader. 2. What is Proactive Network Defence? The proactive network defence strategy as opposed to the traditional network security differs mainly in its application within a given network. This is because of the fact that the proactive network defence strategy is predominantly involved in the process of analysing incoming communication and data transfer within the organization’s network to identify patterns for virus attack or security breach outside the purview of the virus definitions that are normally handled by anti-virus software used. This makes it clear that the application of the pro-active network defence strategy in an organization mainly focused on identifying and preventing new virus patterns, Trojan programs, etc., as opposed to handling the existing virus definitions (Todd and Johnson, 2001[3]). Todd and Johnson (2001) further argues that the network attacks by hackers and other unauthorised users is mainly through exploiting the vulnerabilities in the existing set-up of a network and the programs used for communication etc., This makes it clear that the use of the proactive network defence strategy is a key requirement to assess the communication infrastructure and the protocols used on a regular basis to identify potential vulnerabilities through constant analysis in order to help prevent malicious attacks exploiting such vulnerabilities (McClure et al, 2007). Some of the key proactive network defence strategies are discussed with examples in the subsequent sections of this report. The application of proactive network defence can be accomplished through implementing a set of applications that are targeted to perform network data analysis and performance analysis on the network as well as the computers connected to the network. This strategy will help feed the network security definitions with potential threats to the network thus enabling the organization to update the network security policies by an organization. Another critical factor associated with the network security and proactive defence approach is the increasing need for sustainability over disaster recovery for uninterrupted operations of the core business processes. This makes it clear that the implementation of proactive network defence strategies through continuously monitoring the network traffic will help achieve the desired level of network defence against external attacks. The level of threats faced by a network varies with the extent to which its vulnerabilities are visible to the hackers and the nature of the information being handled. 3. Event Correlation This is deemed to be one of the key elements of proactive network defence as the events leading to the security attack like a Denial of Service (DoS) Attack when analysed online can help prevent the attack rather than repair the damage post-recovery of the attack (Hariri et al, 2005[4]). This process is mainly the ability to use the proactive network defence system to analyse the network data and the events handled by an application as part of the network communication in order to identify patterns of unusual nature that can affect the network defence as argued by Todd and Johnson (2001). One of the key areas where event correlation online is necessary would be the ICMP attacks and the DoS attacks mentioned above. In these cases the major vulnerability of the network is the ability of the attacker to exploit the basic nature of the protocol architecture and logical conditions that lead to the handshake and subsequent communication between the parties involved. The spoofing and flooding attacks that exploit the network layer protocol communication vulnerabilities associated with the handshake process. The sequence of events that lead to the successful attack are mainly associated with the network switch or the hub failing to recognise the malicious user in the handshake process resulting in the transfer of data to the unauthorised user. The events correlation at the network level on the hub will help analyse the series of events in the handshake process raised by the unauthorised user just by identifying the level of communication ports dedicated to the channel for communication thus helping prevent such an attack at the network level. Apart from the case of spoofing and flooding at the network layer protocol attacks, the process of event correlation is one of the critical components of proactive network defence owing to the fact that the communication vulnerabilities is evident at all the communication layers of the TCP/IP model as well as the applications using them for communication as argued by Conway (2004) (2004)[5]. This is naturally because of the fact that the event correlation is one of the major elements that help identify new Trojan programs that have infiltrated the firewall. Once the events are recorded, a correlation either linear or non-linear would help identify potential threats to the network by identifying Vulnerabilities in the network The programs that have exploited such vulnerabilities The events leading to the threat Upon identifying the above, a network administrator can successfully prevent the attack by updating the security policies and virus definitions of the network’s anti-virus program. Another example for the case above will be the Pine e-mail program in UNIX and Linux Machines that generated temporary file a user was editing an e-mail message (Howard and Whittaker, 2005[6]). The event correlation process can help identify the sequence of events associated with the access of the temporary files by unauthorised users. The above example also justifies that the communication level security vulnerability is not the only issue but also the actual software application that is utilising the communication protocol (Conway, 2004). 4. Real-time Analysis and Event logging The process of real-time analysis is deemed to be one of the key aspects of proactive network defence. This is necessary because both the software application vulnerability and the network vulnerability. The real-time analysis as argued by Hariri et al (2005) is mainly performed as a listener service that is dedicated to capture the events as they occur whilst analysing them against the logged events from either a database-based application or the event logs that are generated by the operating system. This is the process that can help control the network attacks as the comparison with the historic events is one of the key aspects associated with identifying planned attacks on a network as argued by Hariri et al (2005). The use of the real-time analysis of the events along with using the existing set of events is indeed a memory rich and processor demanding process. Hence the implementation of this procedure across a wide network would require effective configuration of the available resources in order to optimize the network performance for running the enterprise applications. The implementation of the real-time analysis strategy as part of the proactive network defence is deemed to be an advanced level of security implementation purely due to the fact that the resources consumed and the nature of the requirement to prevent the slightest attack on the network. This makes it clear that the real-time analysis with correlation to the archive events in either the event logs or database is not an option for small and medium enterprises whilst the real-time analysis in itself is a powerful tool that can help fend the network attacks effectively in a proactive manner. One of the major areas where the real-time analysis is applicable is the case of spyware (Luo, 2006[7]). The case of spyware is predominantly dependant on the ability to mask the events and listen into the target computer/network without the knowledge of the user. The use of the real-time analysis of the events will help identify patterns that can be assessed in order to identify potential spyware that are running in the computer. The use of real-time analysis as part of the proactive network defence will also help identify critical issues associated with the network performance as the primary aim of attackers is the de-stabilise the network. The use of the real-time analysis to review the network performance will help prevent the infiltration of hackers through the use of listeners programs on the transport layer and network layer protocols either through opening an additional communication port or through flooding the communication ports with malicious handshake requests. Attacks like Tiny Fragment Attack which is targeted on the TCP protocol through exploiting the filtering rules of the protocol algorithm can be identified effectively using the real-time analysis. The use of appropriate conditions on identifying the filtering rules’ manipulation in the real-time analysis will help achieve the desired level of network defence whilst preventing the exploitation of the TCP protocol rules. Spyware related attacks that threaten the corporate environment heavily as argued by Lou (2006) can be identified and prevented effectively using the proactive network defence strategies. The real-time analysis strategy of proactive network defence will help accomplish the desired level of network defence whilst continuously analysing the data transferred across the network. 5. Access Control and Network Immunity The use of the access control and network immunity in a network defence strategy is one of the major areas where the network security can be maintained whilst preventing the unauthorised access to the network/network resources as argued by Hariri et al (2005). The proactive network defence strategy in an organization though event correlation and real-time analysis can be achieved effectively through enabling a robust access control policy across the network as argued by Conway (2004). This owing to the fact that the code hacking targeted on the TLS and SET protocols of the TCP/IOP protocol stack can be identified through analysis through the effective use of the access control policies as argued by Conway (2004). This is plausible by integrating the real-time analysis with the access control policies of the network thus providing the ability to handle exceptions and violations to the network access for a given user registered with the network. It is further critical to appreciate the fact that the major vulnerability within a network is the access control which when not implemented effectively will provide room for the registered users to exploit their network access rights. Role-Based Access control that is deemed to be a logical and proactive measure to prevent the malicious access to the information whilst enabling robust access control policy is one of the strategies that can help achieve proactive network defence. The combined use of the real-time analysis and the Role-Based Access Control methodology will help accomplish proactive network defence against external as well as internal attacks on the network. Application penetration as argued by Howard and Whittaker (2005) is one of the major areas where the network immunity strategy can help achieve proactive network defence against malicious attacks on the network. As the inherent weaknesses of the application when identified by the hacker to use for his/her benefit will result in the network being attacked from the core through the application, it is necessary to implement strategies like the aforementioned in order to enable reliable network security. This process is also evident in the case of throughput-based attacks on the communication protocols like the Blind-Throughput reduction attack which can be used by the attacker to reduce the amount of data transferred on purpose when using ICMP protocols. The use of the network immunity through real-time analysis and the use of access control strategies will help draft a better appreciation of the issue faced by the network and the cause for the performance reduction. This when identifie d can be integrated to the existing security policies of the network in order to prevent abuse of the vulnerabilities within the network. The case of through reduction attacks also accompany the threat of forcing the server computer to re-send the same message multiple times with reduction in the packet size owing to the inability of the destination to receive the packet. This strategy popularly known as the performance degradation attack by the hackers can have serious impact on the server performance due to the lack of the server to cater for more number of users can be identified through the use of proactive network defence strategies like real-time analysis and network immunity to ensure that the performance of the network as well as the computers connected to the network are not affected. The use of event correlation and real-time analysis strategies will help identify the critical issues associated with the communication port related attacks on server computers like the TCP port 80 attacks can be identified and prevented effectively. As the port 80 is one of the key communication ports for TCP protocol in external communication, the exploitation of this vulnerability will affect the overall performance of the server computer being attacked thus resulting in performance degradation. The use of the proactive monitoring methods for network defence can help overcome these issues by identifying patterns through running correlation (linear or non-linear) to prevent new attacks targeted on such communication ports. The HTTP protocol which is a critical element in the Web-based applications for electronic commerce is another key application layer protocol that is targeted by hackers on specific communication ports of the computers involved in the communication. 6. Applied Proactive Network Defence and Protocol Attacks’ countermeasures The countermeasures for protocol attacks specific to the vulnerability in each network communication protocols used for communication over the Internet are mainly reactive in nature. This is because of the fact that the countermeasures Port Randomization for Blind Connection Reset Attack etc., were set in place following an attack but not prevented through assessing the network communication architecture beforehand. In case of the use of the proactive network defence strategy, the key advantage is to use specific software algorithms to assess the existing network and perform a vulnerability check in order to identify the key areas where there will be potential external attacks. This approach will help prevent new attacks through enabling new virus definitions that handle exceptions raised through these attacks. The applied proactive network defence strategy is deemed to be a continuously evolving strategy that can help identify and handle vulnerabilities in the network as well as the applications used in the network. This makes it clear that the effective use of the applied proactive network defence strategies will help realize the desired network security at an on-going basis as opposed to the traditional countermeasures approach which is mainly reactive in nature. 7. Conclusion From the discussion presented above it is clear that the proactive network defence when applied across a given enterprise network will help achieve a dynamic network security management. However, the key element that must be appreciated is the fact that the network security must be enabled for the existing security threats using the security definitions and policies defined by the organization alongside the commercial software used for the network security. The continuous update of the virus definitions alongside the firewall configuration and security updates from the security software vendor is critical for the network security. The major advantage of the use of the proactive network defence strategy is the ability to identify patterns that may have been missed by the definitions from the security software vendor. The configuration of proactive network defence system to the security requirements specific to the organization’s network will help implement a layer of security o ver the otherwise reactive network security strategy. It is also critical to appreciate that the proactive network defence in an organization will help address not only the security related aspects of the network but provide a comprehensive support strategy by analysing the performance of the network and the server/nodes comprising the network. The applied proactive network defence strategy is thus a layer of security that can help effectively use the security software and network resources in an integrated fashion. Footnotes [1] Stallings, W. (2007), Cryptography and Network Security: 4th Edition, Prentice Hall [2] McClure, S.; Kurtz, G.; and Scambray, J. (2005), Hacking Exposed – 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill [3] Todd, C. and Johnson, N. L. (2001), Hack Proofing Windows 2000 Server Security, Syngress Publishing [4] Hariri, S.; Guangzhi Qu; Modukuri, R.; Huoping Chen and Yousif, M.; (2005), Quality-of-protection (QoP)-an online monitoring and self-protection mechanism, Selected Areas in Communications, IEEE Journal on Volume 23, Issue 10 [5] Conway, R. (2004), Code Hacking : A Developers Guide to Network Security, Charles River Media [6] Howard, M. and Whittaker, J. A. (2005), Application Penetration Testing, IEEE COMPUTER SOCIETY, 1540-7993/05/$20.00 [7] Luo, X. (2006), A Holistic Approach for Managing Spyware, E D P A C S, VOL. XXXIII, NO. 11