Lipase Producing Rhodococcus Strains Analysis

Lipase Producing Rhodococcus Strains Analysis CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Overview of research Malaysia has attained an outstanding position as world’s second largest palm oil producer. This remarkable quality indirectly eases high consumption of palm oil in the country. As per statistic, industrial domestic consumption has achieved 2,000 million tonnes of palm oil while, general domestic consumption reaches 3,160 million tonnes for the year 2013 (Index Mundi, 2013). Considering variable food industry scales available in the country, this ideal identity has even manifested Malaysia’s status as â€Å"Asia’s Food Paradise†. Number advantages such wide availability and consistent utilization of cooking oil throughout the nation, has indirectly resulted to startling questions on the management of used cooking oil. Coined and defined already that, lipids holds the largest portion of organic components in municipal and industrial wastewater particularly from food industries (Prasad Manjanuth, 2011). Improper management of fatty wastes on the other hand, has led to serious anthropogenic damages such as clogging pipes, congest treatment filters, odour problems, oil film formation and depleting oxygen hence, damaging aquatic livings (Fadile et al., 2011; Cipinyte et al., 2009). Therefore, removal as well as early remediation on lipid contaminant has become a great necessary due to its associated negative impacts. In regards to the necessity of improvement in biological treatment, enzymatic technology specifically lipase is gaining increasing attention. Concept of â€Å"White Biotechnology† introduces two implications on fatty acid contaminants namely concept of biodegradation and biotransformation (Dors et al., 2013; Whiteley Lee, 2006). Biological treatment on lipid contaminated sites employ microbial lipase to detoxify, solubilize fatty acids and further commence conversion into microbial biomass. Despite the nature of treatment technology, it is crucial to ensure incorporation of right microbes on right place with suitable environment conditions for degradation to occur (Ugukchokwu et al., 2008). Fascinatingly, aerobic biodegradation by active lipolytic strains was proven to be feasible with many other added advantages compared to other strategies (Cipinyte et al., 2009). On top of it, lipases also exhibit excellent feasibility in early remediation through biotransformation approach. Abundant waste fatty feedstock prior to disposal can be modified in structure by lipolytic reactions. These modifications could be applied to serve demands for numerous industrial products like pet food, cosmetics, detergents, soap, floatation reagent and handcrafts (Used cooking oil, 2011; Shimizu, 1988; Alonso et al., 2000; Emoterabear, 2013). To date, current growing industrialization projected great necessary for alternative energy fuel-source due to depleting petroleum based fuels. As an enzymatic early remediation, researchers also have introduced lipase catalysed biodiesel product in oleochemical industry (Felizardo et al., 2006). Parallel to the â€Å"Green Environment† strategy, used cooking oil are proven to be possible alternate feedstock for biodiesel production as well (Chetri Watts et al., 2008). Considering wide range of versatility of lipase as biocatalyst, this enzyme is catered for both biodegradation and biotransformation productively. However, researchers are still in search of new lipase-lipid interaction to diversify the efficiency and upgrade quality of the existing outcome. Therefore in present investigation, production of lipase enzyme from locally isolated actinomycete known as Rhodococcus sp. was investigated. Denoting minimal documentation on lipase production by this actinomycete, yet the extreme ability of the strain to degrade oil extensively draws great intuition on lipase production. 1.2 Statement of problem As an amalgamation of many races, Malaysia has established a robust position for various food cuisines especially variable deep fried dishes. Therefore, large amount of cooking oil is required in the food preparation which simultaneously yields similar portion of utilized cooking oil. Consequently, excessive increments of waste cooking oil (WCO) are being disposed to waste streams continuously which lead to many detrimental effects to the environment. Therefore, it’s absolutely necessary to apply bioremediation concept to comprehensively treat the contaminated waste sites while providing early remediation to manage the increasing abundance of fatty waste materials. In order to emphasize high occurrence of waste cooking oil production especially in Malaysia, a survey was conducted in Teluk Bahang, Pulau Pinang, a local area popularly known for food business. The outcome reveals that the community generates 40% of more than 15kg of waste cooking oil monthly as described in Figur e 1.1. Figure 1.1: Production of WCO in Teluk Bahang, Pulau Pinang, a popular food industry area in Malaysia (Hanishah et al., 2013). 1.3 Justification of problem As aforementioned, cooking oil has become a basic ingredient for food preparation in the entire world. Deep frying is recognized as traditional practice of food preparation, where the oil are left exposed repeatedly to excessive heat of 160  ºC- 190  ºC in presence of moisture and air (Kamisah et al., 2012). Additionally, people tend to be fonder of fried food due to the attractive colour, fast preparation, delicious taste and catchy presentation in dining (Cvengros Cvengrosova, 2004). As a result, waste cooking oil are extensively being generated due to food and semi product preparation by frying such as fast food networks, restaurants, dining rooms, catering establishments throughout the world (Cvengros Cvengrosova, 2004; Kulkarni Dalai, 2006). According to a report by Capital Region District, 2012, almost 1million kilograms of fat contaminants are being disposed through our home drainage every year. Review in Asia countries like Malaysia, China, Indonesia, India and Thailand on the other hand, estimates to produce waste cooking oil for 40 000 tonnes per year (Hanisah et al., 2013). Meanwhile to be detail, excessive heating of cooking oil causes chemical modification by forming toxic compounds like peroxides, aldehyde and polymer via few reactions including hydrolysis, oxidation and thermolytic (Kulkarni Dalai, 2006; Hanisha et al. 2013). In agreement to this, study by Kamisah et al. (2012) found out that repeated heating of cooking oil augmented lipid peroxidation formation in the oil which causes severe health problems to human. Malaysian’s night markets for an instance, offer variety deep fried snacks such as keropok lekor, meat balls, sausages and potato chips. Different type of fried food indeed causes different fatty acid composition and anti- oxidant properties to the frying oil (Awney, 2011, Purushothama et al., 2003; Adam et al., 2007). In case of keropok lekor, a popular snack in Malaysia, the oil is prone to autoxidation due to the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), therefore, the oil has been chemically modified (Kamsiah et al., 2 012). Nevertheless, if this â€Å"dead oil† been disposed to water streams or land, it indirectly causes both water pollution and land pollution. After being disposed to aquatic environment, this contaminant undergoes four natural actions namely weathering, evaporation, emulsification or biodegradation. In exceptional to biodegradation, the rest of natural actions leads to the formation of oil slick or oil film on surface of water. Meanwhile droplets of oil will be vertically distributed in water, increasing BOD and COD value besides, transforming into toxic compound due to degraded oil by-product (Hanisah et al., 2013; Understanding oil spills and oil spill response, 1999; Marjadi Dharaiya, 2010). Riskily, these cause an interaction between the oil and sediments to occur hence, affecting living of aquatic lives. Indirectly, these carcinogenic compounds can be absorbed into by marine creatures and affect human food chain (Kulkarni Dalai, 2006; Hanisah et al., 2013; Understanding o il spills and oil spill response, 1999). Figure 1.2 precisely describes natural actions encountered due to disposal of waste cooking oil into water and land. 1.4 Scope of research In regards to detrimental impacts imposed by waste cooking oil, it’s absolutely prudent to commence treatment on lipid contaminated sites and further discover feasible ways to manage the fatty waste materials. Therefore, presence research recommends remediation through biodegradation and biotransformation for an effectual management of the waste cooking oil. Lipases, being a ubiquitous biocatalyst significantly extend frontiers of applications through hydrolysis as well as esterification reactions. Favourably, waste cooking oil that has been disposed to the water streams can be potentially treated with biocatalytic action of lipase producing microorganisms. Waste cooking oil prior to disposal also can be potentially transformed into many value-added products through structure modification by the same catalyst as well. Concerning numerous microbial lipases and wide range of reactions catered by lipase enzyme, it’s essential to obtain this biocatalyst from a novel and reliable source. This will highlight new lipid-lipase interaction with better characteristics for improvement and further add intrinsic value for industrial interests adequately (Jesus et al., 1999; Glogauer et al., 2011). Considering the alarming production of waste cooking oil by local food industries and household disposal, a feasible remediation requires a promising local yet new source for lipase enzyme. Appropriately, local Rhodococcus strains, an actinomycete isolated throughout Peninsular Malaysia was not been evaluated for lipase production. Being an excellent hydrocarbon degrader, these serial of strains is expected to project excellent level of lipase secretion and further be applied into both biodegradation and biotransformation. Upon, identification of lipase production from this actinomycete, the best lipase producing strains was optimized for maximum enzyme activity. Since, this bacteria is poorly studied, the crude enzyme was subjected for electrophoresis to estimate the size protein band of the extracted enzyme. Later on, practicability of the optimized strains was applied as both whole cell biocatalyst (naturally immobilised cell) and immobilised intracellular crude. A preliminary analysis of the enzyme to biodegrade WCO and also biotransform WCO into biodiesel was evaluated also for future studies. Precisely, lipolytic actions illustrated in Figure 1.3 are the reactions evaluated in biodegradation and biotransformation of WCO by Rhodococcal lipase in this study. Figure 1.3: (a) Hydrolytic reactions displayed by lipase enzyme to solubilize fatty acids and further convert into biomass during biodegradation of WCO (Jaeger Reetz, 1998). (b) Trans-esterification reaction by lipase enzyme involving transfer of alcohol moiety to form acid alkyl ester during biotransformation in biodiesel production (Murugesan et al., 2009). 1.5 Objectives of this research The primary goal of this study is to identify and evaluate lipase producing Rhodococcus strains, as ideal source for bioremediation purposes. Following are the stages of objectives obeyed in this investigation: To screen and identify for the most potential lipase producing Rhodococcus isolates To study the optimum conditions required for maximum lipase production by identified lipolytic Rhodococcus sp. To evaluate ability of Rhodococcus lipase to degrade waste cooking oil. To investigate the ability of Rhodococcus lipase to catalyze conversion of waste cooking oil into biodiesel. Figure 1.4: Flow chart representing designed work flow of this research.

Magic And Science :: essays research papers

Many events were unexplainable and maybe even seemed to be magical before science evolved to what it is today. All questions relating to the origin of life can be answered scientifically. One may question their beliefs based on scientific theory. Human life can be broken down to fundamental theory. Not only geological or biological, but also all events can be answered scientifically. Magic and magicians have certain function in society. The impossible becomes unexplainable, whether it is fact or fiction. But truly in the minds of magicians, their purpose in life is to leave a mystery, a mystery that science is unable to explain. They leave their mark and give people something to think about, a mark which will never be forgotten. Although magic is able to deceive the minds of many, few understand its effect of misdirection of the human mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first accounts of magic were recorded around 1700 B.C. It appeared on the Westcon Papyrus and was recorded by an Egyptian chronicler. Stories of magic were handed down for centuries (Blackstone, 12). It has made a profitable living for soothsayer and gypsies, but there are times when magic was a form of entertainment. During the seventeenth century magic has become a living for some entertainers. Jugglers, wizards, and fortunetellers often appeared as scrub than a man of talent. These respected entertainers attracted lots of attention, not only because of their flaming clothing, but also because of their talents. In time there were traveling performers. Magicians dressed up and traveled for town to town, setting up stages and booths attracting the attention of the people, as well as their money. Pretty soon this sorts of entertainment was everywhere. At fairs they perform when they attract a crowd, then they passed around a hat for donations as if they were be ggars. They appeared in places like the market place, street corners, and even adult entertainment bars (Blackstone, 19).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We have seen magic as a form of entertainment, from making someone disappear, to sawing a girl in half. But all great illusions have an explanation. â€Å"Magic, as we have seen, is about power- a seemingly magical power used and expressed by a skilled actor to create the illusion of miraculous happenings’. But the most mysterious part of magic is how these miraculous happenings are performed. The real power of magic lies within the native effects themselves (Blackstone, 117).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Magicians refer magical appearance of an object as a production.

grinch who stole christmas :: essays research papers

The time arrives but once a year -- Chirstmas-time holiday with varying cheer. But buying and selling and buming and parking Spur movie mischievers in need of a larking. There's snowflakes fallen and gently sprinkled, With all the little Whosters' smiles frozen wrinkled. Sleeping and shopping for five minutes or less, Stopping a moment to see the Grinch and how he stole Christmas. This dastardly deed won't make Zanzibelt wail, This is a gift that won't fly through the mail. For you'd be called names like suffering maroon, If you miss this fable-ous live-action cartoon. Maniacal, magnificent, magical and merry -- Driven through the snow by the one Jim Carrey. Soaring through sets bent by fantastical fancy, He's over the top, past the tip-top of Mount Clancey. The tiniest of heart's tale is whispered and told, But the green-haired shoulders break every mold. There once was a boy by the name of the Grinch, Rankled and ruptured! Punctured and pinched! So his feet did move with speed and precision, Finding a home made of garbage...his decision. "Those people of Whoville and that infernal time of year," Said the man who ate glass with wallowful jeers. But Whos are filled with spirits that sing, (A little off-tune, but to good intentions cling). The hoopla and crazitude centered on a girl, Named Cindy Lou Who, Taylor Momsen gave it a whirl. She questions each corner and scours for the answer, To why Christmas can make even the lazy pure dancers. Based on a book and cartoon by Doc Seuss, A bomb could have blown about the oddball recluse. But fantabulous sets and Cindy Lou's sparkle, Tag-team with Carrey's ability to spew the word "farkle". The wonderment remains, so watch, watch, watch -- Or you'll be laughed at like a boy named little Mike Rotch. The Doc's main points stick like hair to glue, It's not too dark, so other critics: Boo hoo! You need to say why such a creature would steal,

Frankenstein Essay

Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley, encompasses every definition of a tragic hero. A tragic hero is not the normal hero a reader always envisions, but rather a character that causes suffering to others. This is shown through Victor Frankenstein himself in this novel. Victor Frankenstein would be classified as a tragic hero in this novel because of his choice to â€Å"play God†. This is shown through him creating the Creature. He knew that this could be dangerous, but he continued to work as if nothing could go wrong for over two sleepless years. He assembled the Creature, hoping that it would be able to help humankind, and be his friend when no one else would. Victor was terrified of the Creature. â€Å"I had desired it with an ardour that far exceeded moderation; but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart. Unable to endure the aspect of the being that I had created, I rushed out of the room, and continued a long time traversing my bed-chamber, unable to compose my mind to sleep†(30). This quote shows how horrific he perceived the â€Å"monster† he had just created. Victor begins to wonder why he had spent so much time creating the Creature, and why he had thought that he would help mankind. Although Victor saw the Creature as a monster, the Creature wanted nothing more than to be loved and wanted by his creator. When the Creature was denied the love and affection he so longed, he did become a killing machine. â€Å" Character, English-language films, At that moment he sees a gigantic figure illuminated by a bolt of lightning†¦ and he instinctively realizes that that it was the Creature who killed his brother William† (Kelley). After the death of William and Justine, and the woman accused of killing William and was sentenced to death for it, the Frankenstein family went on a vacation to the mountains, where Victor runs into the Creature. The Creature describes himself as â€Å"miserable beyond all living things†, and that misery made him a friend. The monster makes a request of Victor to listen to his story and was hopeful that Victor will understand his position. The Creature requests that Victor make him a mate, and if he does, he will run away with her and never return. Victor agrees to construct a mate for Creature, but abandons this in the middle of the project. This c ould show how much of a tragic hero that Victor really is. Since he abandoned the female monster, the original creature kills his best friend, Henry, and his wife, Elizabeth. If Victor Frankenstein had only cared more about the Creature and mankind other than himrself, there might have been a happy ending to the novel. But since this was not true, the novel ended in tragedy, further explaining the role Victor Frankenstein had on the plot as a tragic hero.

The Drive to Destroy Enlightenment Values

The history of wars and revolution is flooded with personalities with almost mythical qualities. The heroes of wars and revolutions declared new social orders based on the principles of justice and public service. These individuals, after their assumption to power and material wealth, declared the supremacy of their respective cultures. In history, this happened many times, as in the case of the Athenian and Roman Empires, the Napoleonic Era, the Holy Roman Empire, and many others. Yet, out of these wars and revolutions, ideologies developed. These ideologies usually offered alternative ways of life, that is, new philosophies for managing civilizations.However, some ideologies became the background for advancing rationalism and progress. Out of revolutions at the latter part of the 18th century, a general atmosphere of Enlightenment clouded the countries of Europe. This ideology declared the innate greatness of man, his love for liberalism, and his drive towards order and self-regula tion. The Enlightenment proposed the idea that man, given his limitations and tendencies to innovate, can achieve freedom by imputing liberal values both in the state and the society. This can be done in two ways. An individual, in association with other individuals can establish a government that promotes liberal ideas. If the state is unresponsive to the waves of liberalism or obstructs its growth, then the only answer is revolution. Here, the term â€Å"revolution† acquires a positive character.Although the new ideology was borne out of the French Revolution, it was eventually accepted by European monarchs as an alternative way of dealing with their liberal subjects. They saw the Enlightenment as vital to the survival of European civilization and advancement of science and technology. A civilized way of life can only be maintained so long as the â€Å"spirit of times† matches the needs of the populations. As one will see later, the values advanced by the Enlightenme nt were threatened by the wars and revolutions of the 20th century.Sigmund Freud’s Civilization and its DiscontentsAccording to Freud, the foundation of civilization can be traced to the conflict between sexual need and social mores. The former is the source of mankind’s libidinal energy; expressed in love and satisfaction. The latter is the source of dissatisfaction, frustration, and ultimately aggression. Harmony can only be achieved when an individual learned to control his violent impulses.Here, Sigmund Freud made the following assertions about the nature of man and civilization. Some of his assertions are as follows:1) Destructive forces or its source are exhibited in all individuals. Thus, man by nature, is an anti-social and anti-cultural. â€Å"Men are not gentle, friendly creatures wishing for love, who simply defend themselves if they are attacked, but that a powerful measure of desire for aggression has to be reckoned as part of their instinctual endowmentà ¢â‚¬  (Freud:1930/1989:51).2)Because of the anti-social nature of man, he finds difficulty in keeping promises;3)And, aggression is seen as an original self-subsisting instinctual disposition in man: â€Å"the greatest impediment to civilization† (Freud, 1930/1989:58).Because Freud saw man as anti-social and anti-cultural, he assumed that civilization was the product of struggle between the libidinal instinct and social mechanisms for controlling behavior. In history, according to him, some individuals were able to subdue their â€Å"feeling of obedience to social mores† to aggression. Genghis Khan, Emperor Neo, Attila the Hun, and many others were revealed as savage beasts to whom â€Å"the thought of sparing their own kind as alien† (Freud, 1930/1989:54).Freud saw aggression then as the real threat to civilization, all the more that aggression is present in all individuals. The society then is forced to use violent means to curb the threat; a form of violent reprisal of a violent tendency. Every institution in the society are called to reinforce the values of humanity, or more specifically of civilization (the values of liberalism and rationalism). This struggle between the two tendencies only increases the propensity of a bloody end. The values of civilization to which societies were built would be compromised to suit the demands of the â€Å"outlaw.†Here, Freud made his remarks about the struggle.â€Å"Civilization expects to prevent the worst atrocities of brutal violence by taking upon itself the right to employ violence against criminals, but the law is not able to lay hands on the more discreet and subtle forms in which human aggressions are ex- pressed.The time comes when every one of us has to abandon the illusory anticipations with which in our youth we regarded our fellow-men, and when we realize how much hardship and suffering we have been caused in life through their ill-will. It would be unfair, however, to reproach culture with trying to eliminate all disputes and competition from human concerns. These things are undoubtedly indispensable; but opposition is not necessarily enmity, only it may be misused to make an opening for it† (Freud, 1930/1989:61).Conrad’s Heart of DarknessHeart of Darkness is a literary piece showing the conflict between two civilizations or more accurately two competing ideologies. The struggle between these two ideologies results to bloodshed and animosity among men; a sort of social anomie Durkheim referred to as the deterioration of social norms.In Chapter III of the book, Conrad showed that men are induced to violence when demands and priorities conflict. The main character of the story, Kurtz, found his way in conflict with the natives and the ship’s manager over the value of the ivory tusks.â€Å"The manager enters the cabin to speak with Kurtz, and Marlow withdraws to the steamer’s deck. From here he sees two natives standing near the river with impressive headdresses and spears, and a beautiful native woman draped in ornaments pacing gracefully along the shore. She stops and stares out at the steamer for a while and then moves away into the forest. Marlow notes that she must be wearing several elephant tusks’ worth of ornaments.The Russian implies that she is Kurtz’s mistress, and states that she has caused him trouble through her influence over Kurtz. He adds that he would have tried to shoot her if she had tried to come aboard. The trader’s comments are interrupted by the sound of Kurtz yelling at the manager inside the cabin. Kurtz accuses the men of coming for the ivory rather than to help him, and he threatens the manager for interfering with his plans† (Conrad, 1971:27).Other Europeans though were eager to compete against Kurtz in acquiring ivory tusks from the natives. Thus, Marlow (a character in the story) and a Russian trader ended up aligning with Kurtz against their competi tors.Philosophically speaking, the story presented the staggering change of heart of Marlow. Instead of presenting himself as a man of humility, he was forced to redefine his values (Enlightenment values). He suddenly became obsessed of acquiring more and more wealth. He loathed the Africans for their irrationality and savagery. He accused the Europeans of exploiting the natives while he himself indulged in every form of luxury. In the end, he became violent and indignant to the basic principles of civilization; the same thing Sigmund Freud said (although the manner Freud assumed it was academic).Thadeus Borowitz’ This Way for the Gas Ladies and GentlemanBorowitz thesis can be summed up as follows: violence can be magnified using fear as the catalyst (Borowitz, 1976). In this book, the author portrayed the brutal murder of the Jews during the Second World War, specifically during Hitler’s Final Solution to the Jewish Question.Fear erased all the hopes of survival for t he Jews. Death was the only way to surrender one’s claim to this world; the only way to escape further punishment and suffering. The Author emphasized the following as the outmost determinants of fear and its intended consequences:1)Fear raised the morale of the aggressor. The Nazis believed that the Jewish race was a perversion in the world; a race induced in violence and cultural disintegration.2)Thus, the only way to exterminate a violent race was to match it with greater violence.3)Survival is only a temporary stage of bliss. Memories of loved ones who perished in the gas chambers will soon follow suit. â€Å"Millions of other citizens were killed for no reason at all except for the fact that they were Jewish. To survive a life full of sick competiveness, never-ending fear, and the loss of loved ones is a huge accomplishment.†SummaryFreud, Conrad, and Borowitz are basically examining the basic urge in man: violence. Violence can destroy values which have been cheri shed since the birth of a powerful ideology. Only the methods of telling the message differed. Freud approach was academic, that of Conrad literary, that of Borowitz historical.ReferencesBorowitz, Thadeus. 1976. This Way for the Gas Ladies and Gentleman. New York: Penguin Books.Conrad, Joseph. 1971. Heart of Darkness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Freud, Sigmund. 1930/1989. Civilization and Its Discontents. W. Norton & Company; Reissue edition. The Drive to Destroy Enlightenment Values The history of wars and revolution is flooded with personalities with almost mythical qualities. The heroes of wars and revolutions declared new social orders based on the principles of justice and public service. These individuals, after their assumption to power and material wealth, declared the supremacy of their respective cultures. In history, this happened many times, as in the case of the Athenian and Roman Empires, the Napoleonic Era, the Holy Roman Empire, and many others. Yet, out of these wars and revolutions, ideologies developed. These ideologies usually offered alternative ways of life, that is, new philosophies for managing civilizations.However, some ideologies became the background for advancing rationalism and progress. Out of revolutions at the latter part of the 18th century, a general atmosphere of Enlightenment clouded the countries of Europe. This ideology declared the innate greatness of man, his love for liberalism, and his drive towards order and self-regula tion. The Enlightenment proposed the idea that man, given his limitations and tendencies to innovate, can achieve freedom by imputing liberal values both in the state and the society. This can be done in two ways. An individual, in association with other individuals can establish a government that promotes liberal ideas. If the state is unresponsive to the waves of liberalism or obstructs its growth, then the only answer is revolution. Here, the term â€Å"revolution† acquires a positive character.Although the new ideology was borne out of the French Revolution, it was eventually accepted by European monarchs as an alternative way of dealing with their liberal subjects. They saw the Enlightenment as vital to the survival of European civilization and advancement of science and technology. A civilized way of life can only be maintained so long as the â€Å"spirit of times† matches the needs of the populations. As one will see later, the values advanced by the Enlightenme nt were threatened by the wars and revolutions of the 20th century.Sigmund Freud’s Civilization and its DiscontentsAccording to Freud, the foundation of civilization can be traced to the conflict between sexual need and social mores. The former is the source of mankind’s libidinal energy; expressed in love and satisfaction. The latter is the source of dissatisfaction, frustration, and ultimately aggression. Harmony can only be achieved when an individual learned to control his violent impulses.Here, Sigmund Freud made the following assertions about the nature of man and civilization. Some of his assertions are as follows.Destructive forces or its source are exhibited in all individuals. Thus, man by nature, is an anti-social and anti-cultural. â€Å"Men are not gentle, friendly creatures wishing for love, who simply defend themselves if they are attacked, but that a powerful measure of desire for aggression has to be reckoned as part of their instinctual endowmentâ₠¬  (Freud:1930/1989:51).Because of the anti-social nature of man, he finds difficulty in keeping promises;And, aggression is seen as an original self-subsisting instinctual disposition in man: â€Å"the greatest impediment to civilization† (Freud, 1930/1989:58).Because Freud saw man as anti-social and anti-cultural, he assumed that civilization was the product of struggle between the libidinal instinct and social mechanisms for controlling behavior. In history, according to him, some individuals were able to subdue their â€Å"feeling of obedience to social mores† to aggression. Genghis Khan, Emperor Neo, Attila the Hun, and many others were revealed as savage beasts to whom â€Å"the thought of sparing their own kind as alien† (Freud, 1930/1989:54).Freud saw aggression then as the real threat to civilization, all the more that aggression is present in all individuals. The society then is forced to use violent means to curb the threat; a form of violent reprisa l of a violent tendency. Every institution in the society are called to reinforce the values of humanity, or more specifically of civilization (the values of liberalism and rationalism). This struggle between the two tendencies only increases the propensity of a bloody end. The values of civilization to which societies were built would be compromised to suit the demands of the â€Å"outlaw.†Here, Freud made his remarks about the struggle.â€Å"Civilization expects to prevent the worst atrocities of brutal violence by taking upon itself the right to employ violence against criminals, but the law is not able to lay hands on the more discreet and subtle forms in which human aggressions are ex- pressed. The time comes when every one of us has to abandon the illusory anticipations with which in our youth we regarded our fellow-men, and when we realize how much hardship and suffering we have been caused in life through their ill-will. It would be unfair, however, to reproach cultu re with trying to eliminate all disputes and competition from human concerns. These things are undoubtedly indispensable; but opposition is not necessarily enmity, only it may be misused to make an opening for it† (Freud, 1930/1989:61).Conrad’s Heart of DarknessHeart of Darkness is a literary piece showing the conflict between two civilizations or more accurately two competing ideologies. The struggle between these two ideologies results to bloodshed and animosity among men; a sort of social anomie Durkheim referred to as the deterioration of social norms.In Chapter III of the book, Conrad showed that men are induced to violence when demands and priorities conflict. The main character of the story, Kurtz, found his way in conflict with the natives and the ship’s manager over the value of the ivory tusks.â€Å"The manager enters the cabin to speak with Kurtz, and Marlow withdraws to the steamer’s deck. From here he sees two natives standing near the river with impressive headdresses and spears, and a beautiful native woman draped in ornaments pacing gracefully along the shore. She stops and stares out at the steamer for a while and then moves away into the forest. Marlow notes that she must be wearing several elephant tusks’ worth of ornaments. The Russian implies that she is Kurtz’s mistress, and states that she has caused him trouble through her influence over Kurtz. He adds that he would have tried to shoot her if she had tried to come aboard. The trader’s comments are interrupted by the sound of Kurtz yelling at the manager inside the cabin. Kurtz accuses the men of coming for the ivory rather than to help him, and he threatens the manager for interfering with his plans† (Conrad, 1971:27).Other Europeans though were eager to compete against Kurtz in acquiring ivory tusks from the natives. Thus, Marlow (a character in the story) and a Russian trader ended up aligning with Kurtz against their competitors. Philosophically speaking, the story presented the staggering change of heart of Marlow. Instead of presenting himself as a man of humility, he was forced to redefine his values (Enlightenment values). He suddenly became obsessed of acquiring more and more wealth. He loathed the Africans for their irrationality and savagery. He accused the Europeans of exploiting the natives while he himself indulged in every form of luxury. In the end, he became violent and indignant to the basic principles of civilization; the same thing Sigmund Freud said (although the manner Freud assumed it was academic).Thadeus Borowitz’ This Way for the Gas Ladies and GentlemanBorowitz thesis can be summed up as follows: violence can be magnified using fear as the catalyst (Borowitz, 1976). In this book, the author portrayed the brutal murder of the Jews during the Second World War, specifically during Hitler’s Final Solution to the Jewish Question.Fear erased all the hopes of survival for the Je ws. Death was the only way to surrender one’s claim to this world; the only way to escape further punishment and suffering. The Author emphasized the following as the outmost determinants of fear and its intended consequences:Fear raised the morale of the aggressor. The Nazis believed that the Jewish race was a perversion in the world; a race induced in violence and cultural disintegration. Thus, the only way to exterminate a violent race was to match it with greater violence. Survival is only a temporary stage of bliss. Memories of loved ones who perished in the gas chambers will soon follow suit. â€Å"Millions of other citizens were killed for no reason at all except for the fact that they were Jewish. To survive a life full of sick competiveness, never-ending fear, and the loss of loved ones is a huge accomplishment.† SummaryFreud, Conrad, and Borowitz are basically examining the basic urge in man: violence. Violence can destroy values which have been cherished sin ce the birth of a powerful ideology. Only the methods of telling the message differed. Freud approach was academic, that of Conrad literary, that of Borowitz historical.ReferencesBorowitz, Thadeus. 1976. This Way for the Gas Ladies and Gentleman. New York: Penguin Books.Conrad, Joseph. 1971. Heart of Darkness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Freud, Sigmund. 1930/1989. Civilization and Its Discontents. W. Norton & Company; Reissue edition.

Reaction Paper †Fiction: Short Story

â€Å"The Jilting of Granny Weatherall† is a small story written by Katherine Anne Porter, the American writer. It was published in 1930 along with other short stories alike, as part of story collection called â€Å"Flowering Judas†. The reaction to this fiction story from a reader’s point of view I’m going to express in this short essay. The whole setting of this story is drawn around the bed of Ms. Weatherall, where she is spending the last moments of her life. The author is focusing her attention on Granny’s thoughts in form of her own self-monologue. The other characters present in the final scene of Granny’s life are: her own daughter, Cornelia, Dr. Harry, the priest, and her grandchildren, who are invited to visit their grandmother before she dies. The fact that Granny Weatherall is having a serious illness is concealed from her by the doctor and the relatives. Being close to death Ms. Weatherall is staying in bright mind and is rehearsing her own thoughts of the past and is fantasizing about present as what she would do if she did not have to stay in bed. The other characters in the story display little action, like quiet talk of Granny’s daughter to the doctor that irritates Ms. Weatherall as she starts feeling more concern about herself. The doctor, on the other hand, is trying to cheer Ms. Weatherall up by telling her that she is looking good and referring to her as â€Å"little girl†, which is inappropriate with ladies of her age. The author is mainly concentrating on Granny’s thoughts in this story. In her memories she goes back into past, sees her husband that died many years ago, and, even against her will, she reminds about events that happened to her when she was a teenager. The author is writing the story the way readers can see not only old woman dying among her relatives but as she watches her own life before her eyes before she passes away. The other people who surround Ms. Weatherall seem not to destruct her from her own thoughts with their actions. The concept of this inner journey is to introduce the reader to Ms. Weatherall’s personality and what her life was about. All the sudden the old lady is seeing things that happened to her many years ago, the memories she either regretted or kept hidden through her entire life. These memories become so lose that she almost experiences them over again after so many years. The author makes it obvious that the old lady has given her heart and soul to being a mother and wife up to her final breath. The whole flow of the story changes as Ms. Weatherall gets close to dying. It seems like the flow of her thoughts is becoming more emotional. Granny starts denying her critical condition and it seems like sh e loses control over the situation. She recalls, once when she thought she was close to dying twenty years ago she did not feel that way and she did not expect death coming. This event has given her the experience of not being afraid of it. She survived that day, and from that point on death has become something invisible to her. Granny almost fell as she could get up of the bed and return to her daily activities. In her own thoughts she acts as she has got things to do tomorrow. She displays incredible stubbornness and will to continue as her death comes closer. The author wanted to make connection between the simple rehearsal of thoughts to almost euphorical state of mind as death comes closer. Ms. Weatherall was always an honest catholic, and her faith in God is inspiring her even now. She remembers, when she was young her faith helped her to overcome any obstacles, and everything she was about to take on could easily be accomplished. â€Å"Thank God there was a little margin over for peace: then a person could spread out the plan of life and tuck in the edges orderly†. Finally Granny Weatherall rests in peace like her long lived father who was her hero and whose image she kept in her mind until her final hour. I personally like the story and how it is told. I found myself relate to this story because a year ago I went through the same period of sorrow when my grandmother was passing away. In this story I felt not only sympathy to Ms. Weatherall as I read it, but I was pleasantly impressed of her courage and will to live even after knowing that she was close to dying. I think this is because she is not only courageous person but she truly has God in her heart. I think this is a really good work by the author as she found a very interesting theme of life and death. I read somewhere that each person before dying sees their own life flashing before them. This was a really good example of interpretations of final thoughts of person and emotional preparation to the end of life.

What is Cryptography?

Technology has developed throughout the years, which has been shown by changes in different aspects of how people live their daily lives. One example could be the means of transportation which started from horses during early times to carriages, invention of automobiles, aircrafts, submarines and many more which we use at present. Through centuries, sending of messages has also evolved from messenger mail to electronic mail via the World Wide Web. Along with these are rising security threats to senders and receivers of those messages who fear that their mail would be opened by someone else.It is and has been the same problem ever since. How can these security threats and privacy invasions be avoided then? The main topic of this research is the importance of a science that helps everyone. It could be in terms of technology to the benefit of computer enthusiasts and industrialists, or simply for protection of the privacy of each citizen. The following pages would give the readers a bri ef introduction of the subject at hand, Cryptography. Along with its definition, history, forms and uses, readers would also be able to learn how important this science is and why each person should use it in their daily communication.According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, Cryptography is the enciphering and deciphering of messages in secret code or cipher, the computerized encoding and decoding of information. It is also known as secret writing. Derived from the Greek words kryptos, which means hidden and the grafo, meaning write, is the transformation of data into a secure message, so that unintended recepients would not be able to understand or use them. (Wikibooks, Inc. , 2007).Cryptography is used to hide information by means of encryption, therefore making data unreadable to those who don’t have the secret key that can decipher or decrypt the message into an understandable one. Encryption is done when information is transformed into something which others m ight see as useless. This is called ciphertext. The act of transforming the said information into an understandable format with the use of a cipher or secret key is called decryption. (Wikibooks, 2007) The use of cryptography is seen today through its many uses.These include the security of ATM cards, electronic commerce and computer passwords. These are used for access control and confidentiality of secure information. (Cryptography, 2007) Such techniques like microdots and combining words with images are used by cryptographers to hide information from unintended recepients. (Pawliw, 2006) The earliest known use of cryptography is Classical Cryptography. It shows that it has been thousands of years since cryptography was first done. History has stated that the first proof of the use of cryptography dates back to 2000 BC.It has been related with the Egyptians’ practice of hieroglyphics which consisted of complicated pictograms seen carved into monuments of Ancient Egypt. Thes e pictograms were hard to interpret and only a chosen few knew what their real meanings were. Some time within 500 and 600 BC, Hebrew scholars made use of simple substitution ciphers like the Atbash Cipher in order to solve these encrypted messages. According to Wikibooks, the first known use of a modern cipher was by Julius Caesar (100 BC to 44 BC):â€Å"†¦who did not trust his messengers when communicating with his governors and officers. For this reason, he created a system in which each character in his messages was replaced by a character three positions ahead of it in the Roman alphabet. † (Wikibooks, 2007) By the time of World War II, there has become a great use of mechanical and electromechanical cryptographic cipher machines, but the usage of these was very impractical. During this time, there were various developments in both mathematical and practical cryptography.When the period of modern cryptography began, Claude Shannon, father of mathematical cryptograph y, published the paper Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1949. Shortly after that, along with Warren Weaver, he published the book Mathematical Theory of Communication as well. Because of those publications, a solid theoretical basis for cryptography and for cryptanalysis was established, which made cryptography known only by secret government communications organizations such as the NSA.It was only in 1969 that the public again saw developments in the field of cryptography: â€Å"First was the DES (Data Encryption Standard) submitted by IBM†¦ in an effort to develop secure electronic communication facilities for businesses such as banks and other large financial organizations†¦ it was adopted and published as a FIPS Publication (Federal Information Processing Standard) in 1977†¦has been made effectively obsolete by the adoption in 2001 of the Advanced Encryption Standard†¦DES was the first publicly accessible cypher algorithm to be ‘blessed' by a national crypto agency such as NSA.The release of its design details by NBS stimulated an explosion of public and academic interest in cryptography. † (Wikibooks, 2006) Here are the important terms related to Cryptography in detail; Encryption is the act of hiding information using cryptography. Processed information in this manner is said to be encrypted. Decryption is the process of translating encrypted information. The Key is like a password used to encrypt and decrypt information. A transmission channel used to transmit information in secrecy is called a Secure Line, while a Public Line is the opposite.An example of which are public pay phones and the Internet. (Wooledge , 2000) There are several types of Cryptography being used today. In order to further explain the types of Cryptography, Wooledge compared the Key to a key to a door. First among these is the Symmetric Cipher, which can sometimes be called a symmetric key. Most of the time, it is used for simple types of cryptography because a same key is used to encrypt and decrypt the secret message.â€Å"Everybody who should have access to the room is given a copy of the key†¦put new information in, take old information out†¦if you send somebody a copy of the key by way of the Post Office, somebody working at the Post Office could intercept this key†¦allow them to access this same locked room, and do the same things with it†¦letting them read everything you locked up with that key, even letting them modify it. â€Å"(Wooledge , 2000) The Public Key Cryptography is more complex because in this type of cryptography there are two keys used and together, they are called a key pair.The key used to encrypt is called the public key, which can be given to anyone in order to send information to the owner of the private key, which will be used to decrypt information sent to him. The most common example of this is the use of electronic mail over th e internet, also known as email. The public key is an email address which one gives out to his friends. This allows them to send information to the holder of the secret key, the owner of the email address, the only one who has the password to open and translate the information sent to him or her.(Wooledge , 2000) A One Time Pad is used to send high security messages such as national secrets and is considered the only perfect encryption in the world. In this type of encryption, both the sender and receiver has a copy of the pad to be used as a symmetric key to hide and unhide a message sent over a secure line and destroys them after it has been used. A good example of this is the one seen in Mission Impossible movies, wherein Ethan Hunt receives messages that self-destruct. (Wooledge , 2000)For the sake of totality, it would be best to include Steganography, the science of hiding information from people who would spy on a person. This type of encryption is designed not to let spies k now that there is indeed a something hidden in a certain message. It is very effective, but only used occasionally. (Wooledge , 2000) Along with the internet, there is a large growth in the variety of forms of electronic communications, making its security very important. There are a number of enumerated uses for Cryptography such as protection of e-mail messages, credit card information, corporate and other important information.(Jupiter Media Corporation, 2004) After a brief background on Cryptography, readers would come to know why it is important to use them in their daily activities. The following are common concerns, goals or objectives that answer the above stated question. Message Confidentiality; Encrypted messages would only be understood by intended recepients of a certain message. If a sender would want to hide certain information from the public or from someone in particular, it would be best that cryptography is used.In that manner, only the receiver would have the key to translate the message into a useful and understandable one. Message Integrity; If an encrypted message is intercepted and changed during the sending process, it would easily be known by the receiver, which secures its integrity. Sender Authentication; It would be possible to make sure of the identities of both sender and recepient of the message. With cryptography, the recipient would be able to verify the true identity of the sender, along with the origin and destination of the message.Sender Non-Repudiation; This would prevent a sender from denying an intention to send and that he or she is the true sender of the said message. (Wikibooks, 2007) Though these cryptographic procedures are effective enough to achieve the goals, and concerns mentioned, it is still important for receivers and specially senders to practice caution such as creating a password with a very strong integrity, logging off private systems when they are not being used by the owner and keeping all private inf ormation to oneself. (Pawliw, 2006) Works Cited Cryptography. (2006).In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary [Web]. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from http://www. m-w. com/cgi-bin/dictionary? book=Dictionary&va=cryptography Cryptography. (2007). In Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia [Web]. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cryptography Pawliw, B (2006, January 13). Cryptography. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from Search Security. com Web site: http://searchsecurity. techtarget. com/sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci214431,00. html Wikibooks, (2006, November 1).Cryptography/History of Cryptography. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from Wikibooks, the Open-Content Textbooks collection Web site: http://en. wikibooks. org/wiki/Cryptography/History_of_Cryptography Wikibooks, (2007, January 10). Cryptography/Introduction. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from Wikibooks, the Open-Content Textbooks Collection Web site: http://en. w ikibooks. org/wiki/Cryptography/Introduction Wooledge , G (2000, October 11). What types of cryptography are there?. Retrieved January 24, 2007, from wooledge. org Web site: http://wooledge. org/~greg/crypto/node5. html